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| - | The various books of the [[Hebrew Bible]] contain descriptions of the [[physical science|physical world]]. These descriptions are important for developing a [[History of science in early cultures|history of science]] during the [[Iron Age]] [[Levant]].
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| - | The school of thought known as [[Panbabylonianism]] took the Hebrew Bible as entirely derived from the culture and mythology of [[Babylonia]] as it stood during the 6th century BCE, during the [[Babylonian captivity]]. Current mainstream does allow for the possibility that some elements, particularly of the [[Torah]], are independent of Babylonian influence, dating perhaps as early as the 9th or 10th century BCE, but the significant influence of [[Babylonian mythology]] and [[Babylonian cosmology]] on the worldview presented in the Tanakh is still beyond doubt.
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| - | The Christian [[New Testament]] is a product of the [[Roman era]] and reflects the worldview of that epoch in some instances, e.g. in references to [[astrology]] or [[demonic possession]].
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| - | ==Mathematics==
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| - | The [[History of numerical approximations of π#Biblical value|Biblical value of π]] implies a value of [[pi|π]] = 3, which is notably worse than other estimates available ca. 600 BC). The interpretation of the passage is disputed, with apologists suggesting as early as the 2nd century CE that a more orthodox value could be construed.<sup>[1]</sup><sup>[2]</sup>
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| - | ==Cosmology and astronomy==
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| - | [[Biblical cosmology]] provides sporadic glimpses that may be stitched together to form a Biblical impression of the physical universe. There have been comparisions between the Bible, with passages such as from the [[Genesis creation story]], and the astronomy of classical antiquity more generally.<ref>Kurtz, J. H., and T. D. Simonton. [http://books.google.com/books?id=BNk0AAAAMAAJ The Bible and Astronomy; An Exposition of the Biblical Cosmology, and Its Relations to Natural Science]. Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1857. </ref>
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| - | The worldview of the Tanakh is still clearly that of a [[flat earth]] (e.g.{{nasb|Isaiah|11:12|Isa 11:12}}, {{nasb|Isaiah|44:24|Isa 44:24}}) in a [[geocentrism|geocentric]] universe (e.g. {{bibleverse||Josh.|10:12-13|niv}}, {{bibleverse||Ps.|93:1|niv}}, {{bibleverse|1|Chron.|16:30|niv}}), along with Mesopotamian astronomy of the period .<ref>Driscoll, J.F. (1909). "Firmament". In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 26 May 2008 from [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06079b.htm New Advent]. ("That the Hebrews entertained similar ideas appears from numerous biblical passages...").</ref> {{nasb|Isaiah|40:22|Isaiah 40:22}} ("circle of the earth") is used both to support and refute a flat earth.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=03b_a0monNYC&pg=PA58</ref><ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=5_UcbVxqCjYC&pg=PA101</ref><ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=st5Qveq14soC&pg=PA239</ref>
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| - | The [[spherical earth|spherical shape of the earth]] was established with certainty only in [[Hellenistic astronomy]], in the 3rd century BCE. The first suggestions of heliocentrism also date to the Hellenistic period but remained speculative until the 16th century CE.
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| - | [[Lactantius]] and [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] insisted on the [[flat Earth]] model on scriptural authority as late as the 5th to 6th century, long after the [[spherical Earth|spherical shape of the Earth]] had been deduced in [[Hellenistic astronomy]], and had been generally accepted by their fellow Christians.<ref>Ferngren, Larson, Amundsen (Editors). "Encyclopedia of the History of Science and Religion in the Western Tradition", Garland Publishing Inc, US (29 Jun 2000), p. 246-247. ISBN 0815316569</ref>
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| - | In the reception of [[Heliocentrism]] after [[Copernicus]], biblical references 1 Chronicles 16:30, Psalm 93:1, Psalm 96:10, Psalm 104:5, and Ecclesiastes 1:5 were cited for biblical support of [[geocentrism]]<ref name="Bellarmine quote">[[#Reference-Brodrick-1965|Brodrick (1965, c1964, p.95)]] quoting Cardinal Bellarmine's [[letter to Foscarini]], dated 12 April 1615. Translated from [[#Reference-Favaro-1890|Favaro]][http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=12&VOLPAG=171 (1902, 12:171–172)] {{it icon}}.</ref>. Chronicles 16:30 states that "the world also shall be stable, that it be not moved." Psalm 104:5 says, "[the Lord] Who laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not be removed for ever." Ecclesiastes 1:5 states that "The sun also ariseth, and the sun goeth down, and hasteth to his place where he arose." [[Galileo]] defended [[heliocentrism]], and claimed it was not contrary to those Scripture passages. He took [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]'s position on Scripture.
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| - | There are passages that denote the moon as being [[luminosity|luminous]].([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=1&chapter=1&verse=16&version=31&context=verse; Gen 1:16]) As in Babylonian cosmography, the Hebrew Bible imagines Earth covered by a solid sky-dome<ref>Strong's Concordance (1890). [http://cf.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?strongs=07549 "Dictionary and Word Search for raqiya` (Strong's 07549)"]. Blue Letter Bible 1996-2008. Retrieved 26 May 2008. ("considered by Hebrews as solid and supporting 'waters' above")</ref><ref>Jewish Encyclopaedia (1901-1906). [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=807&letter=C#2736 "Cosmogony"]. Retrieved 26 May 2008. ("The Hebrews regarded the earth as a plain or a hill figured like a hemisphere, swimming on water. Over this is arched the solid vault of heaven. To this vault are fastened the lights, the stars. So slight is this elevation that birds may rise to it and fly along its expanse.")</ref> (the [[Firmament]]) to which the stars were attached.
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| - | [[Augustus Hopkins Strong]] presented one explanation of the inaccuracies reflected in the Hebrew Bible in his work, ''Systematic Theology: The Doctrine of God''.<ref name=AHStrong>Strong, Augustus Hopkins. Systematic Theology: The Doctrine of God (Volume I) [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/strong/theology1/Page_223.html "Errors in matters of Science"] Philadelphia: The Judson Press (1907), pg. 223</ref> Strong pointed out idiomatic usage of ''moonlight'' and ''sunset'' are still prevalent in current times as in ancient times, and that the word firmament has been used in literature where no one would suggest the author believed in flat earth or solid firmament theology.<ref name=AHStrong /> He illustrated the point by asking if [[Dickens]] believed the firmament was "a piece of solid masonry" when "in his ''American Notes'', 72, [Dickens] describes a prairie sunset: 'The decline of day here was very gorgeous, tinging the firmament deeply with red and gold, up to the very keystone of the arch above us'."<ref name=AHStrong /> Modern scholars (other than those ascribing to some form of [[Biblical inerrancy]] doctrine) generally accept that such metaphors in the Bible reflect the authors' underlying belief in the literal truth of this cosmological model.<ref name="seely">For a description of Near Eastern and other ancient cosmologies and their connections with the Biblical view of the Universe, see Paul H. Seeley, [http://faculty.gordon.edu/hu/bi/Ted_Hildebrandt/OTeSources/01-Genesis/Text/Articles-Books/Seely-Firmament-WTJ.pdf "The Firmament and the Water Above: The Meaning of ''Raqia'' in Genesis 1:6-8", Westminster Theological Journal 53 (1991)], and [http://faculty.gordon.edu/hu/bi/Ted_Hildebrandt/OTeSources/01-Genesis/Text/Articles-Books/Seely_EarthSeas_WTJ.pdf "The Geographical Meaning of 'Earth' and 'Seas' in Genesis 1:10", Westminster Theological Journal 59 (1997)]</ref>
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| - | ==Medicine==
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| - | The [[Deuteronomic Code]] contains several sanitation instructions; in particular, {{nasb|Deuteronomy|23:12-13|Deuteronomy 23:12-13}} contains instructions to dispose of human [[Feces|waste]] away from the population, in order to keep locations [[holy]].
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| - | The Old Testament contains a variety of health related instructions, such as isolating infected people ({{nasb|Leviticus|13:45-46|Leviticus 13:45-46}}), washing after handling a dead body ({{nasb|Numbers|19:11-19|Numbers 19:11-19}}), and burying excrement away from a camp ({{nasb|Deuteronomy|23:12-13|Deuteronomy 23:12-13}}).
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| - | The Old Testament also contains various healing rituals. One ritual, for example, deals with the proper procedure for cleansing a leper ({{nasb|Leviticus|14:1-32|Leviticus 14:1-32}}). It is a fairly elaborate process involving extensive cleansing and personal hygiene, but also includes killing a bird and lambs with the addition of using their blood to cleanse the afflicted.
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| - | There is a contention that the degree of effectiveness of the Mosaic dietary restrictions and hygienic strictures indicates and, on the extreme end, "it has taken science thousands of years to discover what the Bible taught all along".<ref>Kline, Monte, Clinical Nutritionist. "The Dietary Law". [http://www.pacifichealthcenter.com/updates/29.asp Better Health Update #29] (2005). Accessed 26 May 2008.</ref><ref>Wise, David. [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/522/ The first book of public hygiene]. ''Creation'' '''26'''(1):52–55, December 2003. Accessed 26 May 2008.</ref><ref>Allen, Bruce. [http://www.christianwebsite.com/artman/publish/christian_articles_10.html "4 Reasons Why You Should Read the Bible"]. Faith-Friends (2003). Reprinted christianwebsite.com, Accessed 19 February 2004</ref> Though civilizations that had large [[cities]] had [[Public health|public sanitation systems]], such as [[Ancient Egypt]], the [[Aegean civilization]], the [[Hittites]], and the [[Elamites]].<ref>Gray, Harold Farnsworth. "Sewerage in Ancient and Medieval Times". Sewage Works Journal, Volume 12, No. 5 (Sept. 1940), pp. 939 - 946. As reprinted on [http://www.sewerhistory.org/articles/whregion/1940_as201/indexmide.htm ''Sewage Works Journal'']</ref>
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| - | Passages within the [[Book of Proverbs]] relate the two, such as {{nasb|Proverbs|12:4|12:4}}, {{nasb|Proverbs|14:30|14:30}}, {{nasb|Proverbs|15:30|15:30}}, {{nasb|Proverbs|16:24| 16:24}}, {{nasb|Proverbs|17:22|17:22}}. Modern science has found that certain proverbs contain advice toward sound mental and physical well-being.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Susan J. Bartlett, Ralph Piedmont, Andrew Bilderback, Alan K. Matsumoto, Joan M. Bathon | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Spirituality, well-being, and quality of life in people with rheumatoid arthritis | journal = Arthritis Care & Research | volume = 49 | issue = 6 | pages = 778–783 | publisher = American College of Rheumatology | location = Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland; Loyola College of Maryland, Baltimore | date = 2003 | url = | doi = 10.1002/art.11456 | id = http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/art.11456 | accessdate = 2008-05-29}} ("By viewing their illness in a positive context, having hope and optimism about the future, flexible life goals, and a supportive social network, spiritual individuals may be more resilient to the host of challenges imposed by chronic illness. As noted long ago in the Old Testament, A merry heart doeth good like medicine; but a broken spirit drieth the bones (Proverbs 17:22).")</ref>
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| - | ==Agriculture and ecology==
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| - | The Jewish religious laws proscribe [[intercropping]](Lev. 19:19, Deut 22:9), a practice often associated with sustainable agriculture and organic farming in modern [[agricultural science]].<ref>Andrews, D.J., A.H. Kassam. 1976. The importance of multiple cropping in increasing world food supplies. pp. 1-10 in R.I. Papendick, A. Sanchez, G.B. Triplett (Eds.), Multiple Cropping. ASA Special Publication 27. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI.
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| - | </ref><ref>[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8901%28198212%2919%3A3%3C901%3APGFPAY%3E2.0.CO%3B2-B&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage The Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 19, No. 3 (Dec., 1982), pp. 901-916] (JSTOR Subscription required)</ref>
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| - | {{nasb|Leviticus|25:1-12|Leviticus 25:1-12}} speaks of leaving fields [[fallow]] for a year every seven years.<ref>Straczynska S. "The effects of leaving fields fallow upon selected fertility elements in soil", ''Acta Agrophysica'' (2001) '''6''':52, pp. 265-270</ref><ref> Hillel, Daniel. [http://books.google.com/books?id=whNxKXxEoJkC The Natural History of the Bible: An Environmental Exploration of the Hebrew Scriptures]. New York: Columbia University Press, 2006. Page 154 (cf., "[...] injunctions to fallow the land every seven years [...]")</ref>
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| - | The Mosaic code has provisions concerning the conservation of natural resources, such as trees ({{nasb|Deuteronomy|20:19-20|Deuteronomy 20:19-20}}) and birds ({{nasb|Deuteronomy|22:6-7|Deuteronomy 22:6-7}}).
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| - | == Biology ==
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| - | {{nasb|Leviticus|11:20-23|Leviticus 11:20-23}} describes [[locusts]], [[grasshopper]]s, [[beetles]], and [[crickets]] as walking on all fours. Although the specific references in this passage indicate that insects were the creatures under consideration, the Hebrew word ''`owph'' here translated "winged" or "flying" is the same word used six times in the creation story ({{nasb|Gen|1:20-30|Genesis 1:20-30}}) and used twelve times in the Genesis account of the flood<ref>{{nasb|Gen|6:7,20;7:3,8,14,21,23;8:17,19,20;9:2,10|Gen 6:7,20;7:3,8,14,21,23;8:17,19,20;9:2,10}}</ref> to refer to [[bird]]s. In the KJV and ASV, the word is translated "birds" or "fowls" in all of these places.<ref>[http://cf.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=H05775&t=kjv Strong's Concordance], s.v. "`owph".</ref> The KJV, in fact, uses "fowls" to open {{kjv|Leviticus|11:20-23|the Leviticus passage}} cited above: "All fowls that creep, going upon all four, shall be an abomination unto you."
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| - | {{nasb|Deuteronomy|14:7|Deuteronomy 14:7}} also described [[hares]] and [[rock badger]] as cud-chewers. While they have no [[Rumen|compartmentalized stomachs]] that the modern definition of [[ruminants]] includes in order to be determined cud-chewers, the close relation to rumination is apparent in many English translations of the Bible{{Dubious|date=April 2009}}, which use the word ''cud'' in an expanded sense to indicate food that is re-chewed through the [[coprophagy]] process used by [[lagomorph]]s.{{Dubious|date=April 2009}}<ref>{{ cite journal | last =Brand | first =Leonard R. | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 1977| month = | title = Do Rabbits Chew the Cud?| journal =Origins | volume =4 | issue = 2| pages =102–104 | id = | url = http://www.grisda.org/origins/04102.htm| accessdate = 2007-08-27 | quote = }}</ref>{{Verify credibility|date=April 2009}}<ref>{{cite web | title = Are Rabbits Erroneously Called Ruminants in the Bible? | accessdate=2007-08-27 | publisher = Bible Study Manuals | url = http://www.biblestudymanuals.net/lev11v6.htm}}</ref>{{Verify credibility|date=April 2009}}
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| - | {{nasb|Proverbs|6:6-8|Proverbs 6:6-8}} described the [[ant]] as an industrious creature, "which having no chief, overseer, or ruler provides her bread in the summer, and gathers her food in harvest." Although ants are labeled as queens, workers, soldiers, and drones, biologist [[Deborah Gordon]] points out there is no authority in the queen as she does not oversee the workers.<ref name=DGordon>Gordon, Deborah. "Ants At Work: How An Insect Society Is Organized", Free Press (October 6, 1999), pg. 118. ISBN 0684857332. ("...the queen is not an authority figure. She lays eggs and is fed and cared for by the workers. She does not decide which worker does what.")</ref> She also states that "no ant is able to assess the global needs of the colony, or to count how many workers are engaged in each task and decide how many should be allocated differently".<ref name=DGordon />{{Or|date=April 2009}}
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| - | There has been comparisons between the Bible, with passages such as from the [[Genesis creation story]], with concepts based on evolutionary theory.<ref>Mackenzie, Harriot. [http://books.google.com/books?id=dCkpAAAAYAAJ Evolution Illuminating the Bible]. London: Simpkin, Marshall, Kent, & co., limited; [etc., etc.], 1891.</ref><ref>Orr, James. The International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia. Chicago: The Howard-Severance Co, 1915. "[http://books.google.com/books?id=wYIPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1043 Evolution]", Page 1043 -1049.</ref>
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| - | {| class="wikitable"
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| - | !
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| - | ! Bible
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| - | ! Evolutionary biology
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| - | |Grass, land plants, trees
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| - | |Created before the sun
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| - | |Evolved after the sun
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| - | |First forms of life
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| - | |Land plants
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| - | |Marine organisms
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| - | |Birds
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| - | |Created before land animals
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| - | |Evolved from land animals
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| - | |Fruit Trees
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| - | |Created before fish
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| - | |Evolved after fish
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| - | |First Human
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| - | |Created from dirt
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| - | |Evolved; higher apes and ''Homo sapiens'' share a common ancestor
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| - | |-
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| - | |}
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| - | ==Relationship between religion and science==
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| - | {{off topic}}
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| - | {{Main|Relationship between religion and science}}
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| - | The relationship between [[religion and science]] has been a focus of the [[demarcation problem]], which in [[philosophy]] attempts to draw the line between science and [[Pseudoscience|nonscience]].<ref>Ruse, Michael (2007). ''Philosophy of Biology''. New York: Prometheus Books.</ref> Some scholars, like [[Thomas Berry]] and [[Brian Swimme]], argue that the two are interconnected. Others like [[Stephen Jay Gould]] and the [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] take the view that each occupy a separate [[Non-overlapping magisteria|nonoverlapping magisterium]].<ref name=noma /><ref> NAS Committee on Science and Creationism (1984). ''[http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=6024 Science and creationism: a view from the National Academy of Sciences]''. National Academy Press.</ref>
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| - | According to this view, statements about the physical world made by science and religion rely on different methodologies. [[Science]] relies on the [[scientific method]] as a body of [[technique]]s used for investigating natural phenomena. To be termed scientific, a claim must be based on observable, empirical, and measurable [[evidence]], which is subject to systematic principles of [[reasoning]].<ref>Newton, Isaac (1687). "Rules for the study of natural philosophy." From the ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=02xbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1 The System of the World,]'' book 3 in ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'', pp. 794-796.</ref><ref>[http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/scientific%20method "Scientific method."] ''[[Merriam-Webster|Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary]]''. Retrieved on 2009-7-8. "A scientific method consists of the collection of [[data]] through [[observation]] and [[experiment]]ation, and the formulation and testing of [[hypotheses]]."</ref>
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| - | [[Scientific skepticism|Skeptics]] argue that the various biblical statements are at odds with scientific knowledge, particularly with regard to its claims regarding the [[Big bang|origin of the cosmos]], [[astronomy]], and [[evolution|biological evolution]]. The "[[Conflict thesis]]" is the argument that religion and science are at constant warfare with one another. This is exemplified by such examples as the [[Galileo affair|persecution]] of [[Galileo Galilei]], the [[1860 Oxford evolution debate|public debate]] between [[T. H. Huxley]] and Bishop [[Samuel Wilberforce]], the [[Scopes Trial|John Scopes trial]], and the current controversy between the teaching of evolution and [[creationism]].<ref>[[Richard Dawkins|Dawkins, Richard]] (1998). [http://www.secularhumanism.org/library/fi/dawkins_18_2.html "When Religion Steps on Science's Turf."] ''Free Inquiry'' 18 (2): 18-19.</ref>
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| - | The ''[[Bible]]'' is the central [[religious text]] of [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]]. Modern Judaism generally recognizes a single set of canonical books known as the [[Hebrew Bible]].<ref> This book comprises three parts: the [[Torah]] ("Teaching", also known as the Pentateuch or "Five Books of Moses"), the Prophets, and the Writings. In Christian religions, the Tanakh is known as the [[Old Testament]].</ref> Christians, including [[Roman Catholics]] and [[Greek Orthodox]], all have the same books in the [[New Testament]] and the same books in the [[Old Testament]].<ref> The only difference are the [[apocrypha]], which are contained in the [[Greek Old Testament]]. Eastern Orthodox Churches use all of the books that were incorporated into the [[Septuagint]], to which they add the earliest Greek translation of the [[Deuterocanonicals]].</ref> The Bible, as an [[Ancient history|ancient]] collection of Jewish and Christian books, originated from the [[Bronze age]] [[Levant]], located within the [[Eastern Mediterranean]]. It is believed the Old Testament was composed and compiled between the [[12th century BC|12th]] and the [[2nd century BC]].<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9373984 Encyclopaedia Britannica]: "Written almost entirely in the Hebrew language between 1200 and 100 BC"; [http://www.bartleby.com/65/ol/OldTesta.html Columbia Encyclopedia]: "In the 10th century BC the first of a series of editors collected materials from earlier traditional folkloric and historical records (i.e., both oral and written sources) to compose a narrative of the history of the Israelites who now found themselves united under David and Solomon."</ref> The New Testament were written by various authors after [[1st century|c. AD 45]], in [[Koine Greek]], the [[lingua franca]] of the eastern part of the Roman Empire. Although the books predate the [[scientific revolution]] of the [[16th century|sixteenth]] and [[17th century|seventeenth]] century, some believe that the Bible [[Scientific foreknowledge in sacred texts|foresaw]] [[History of science in early cultures|ideas]] which would later be verified by [[scientific method|modern science]]. The following parts of various biblical texts are notations and records regarding aspects of the science and technology of the respective times of the various texts. The Bible relies on [[Biblical inspiration]], which is a doctrine in [[Christian theology]] concerned with the divine origin of the Bible and what the Bible teaches. More [[scholar]]ly is [[Biblical criticism]], which asks when and where a particular text originated; how, why, by whom, for whom, and in what circumstances it was produced; what influences were at work in its production; what sources were used in its composition and the message it was intended to convey. Such criticism addresses meanings of the words and the way in which they are used. Biblical criticism draws upon a wide range of scholarly disciplines, including [[archaeology]], [[linguistics]], and [[oral tradition]] studies.
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| - | The [[fields of science]] are widely-recognized categories of specialized expertise within science, and typically embody their own terminology and nomenclature. Each field will commonly be represented by one or more scientific journal, where [[peer reviewed]] research will be published.
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| - | ==See also==
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| - | *[[Criticism of the Bible]]
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| - | * [[The Bible and history]]
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| - | * [[Biblical archaeology]]
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| - | * [[History of science in early cultures]]
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| - | ==Further reading==
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| - | * Dawson, John William. [http://books.google.com/books?id=rJsTAAAAQAAJ Modern Science in Bible Lands]. London: Hodder, 1888.
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| - | * Crosby, Howard. [http://books.google.com/books?id=l_wRAAAAYAAJ The Bible on the Side of Science]: A Lecture : Delivered in New York, December 14, 1874, Before the Society for the Advancement of Science and Art. New York: J.F. Trow & Son, printers, 1875.
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| - | * Dawson, John William. [http://books.google.com/books?id=XTEMAAAAIAAJ Nature and the Bible]. A Course of Lectures Delivered in New York, in December, 1874, on the Morse Foundation of the Union Theological Seminary. New York: R. Carter and brothers, 1875.
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| - | * Rigg, Arthur. [http://books.google.com/books?id=oYYEAAAAQAAJ The harmony of the Bible with experimental physical science, 4 lects]. Oxford University, 1869.
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| - | * Colenso, John William. [http://books.google.com/books?id=KPUUAAAAYAAJ The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Critically Examined]. London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts & Green, 1863.
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| - | * Lewis, Tayler. [http://books.google.com/books?id=exAqAAAAYAAJ The Bible and Science, or, The World-Problem]. Schenectady: G.Y. Van Debogert, 1856.
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| - | * Dawson, J. W. [http://books.google.com/books?id=rs-Irhpva3QC Achaia Or Studies of the Cosmogony and Natural History of the Hebrew Scriptures].
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| - | ==References==
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| - | ;General information
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| - | * Orr, James. [http://books.google.com/books?id=wYIPAAAAYAAJ The International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia]. Chicago: The Howard-Severance Co, 1915.
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| - | * Smith, William. [http://books.google.com/books?id=YpBJAAAAMAAJ A Dictionary of the Bible, Comprising Its Antiquities, Biography, Geography, and Natural History]. With Numerous Illustrations and Maps, Engraved Expressly for This Work. Hartford, Conn: S.S. Scranton & co, 1898.
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| - | * Hull, Moses. [http://books.google.com/books?id=pqAEibVjkA4C Encyclopedia of Biblical Spiritualism]; Or, A Concordance to the Principal Passages of the Old and New Testament Scriptures Which Prove or Imply Spiritualism; Together with a Brief History of the Origin of Many of the Important Books of the Bible. Chicago: M. Hull, 1895.
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| - | * Tuck, Robert. [http://books.google.com/books?id=w8VCAAAAIAAJ A Handbook of Scientific and Literary Bible Difficulties] : or, Facts and Suggestions Helpful Toward the Solution of Perplexing Things in Sacred Scripture: Being a Second Series of the 'handbook' of Biblical Difficulties. London: E. Stock, 1890.
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| - | ;Footnotes
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| - | ==Further reading==
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| - | * [http://sol.sci.uop.edu/~jfalward/ThreeTieredUniverse.htm Biblical Conception of the Universe], uop.edu.
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| - | {{DEFAULTSORT:Science And The Bible}}
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| - | [[Category:Bible]]
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| - | [[Category:Christian theology of the Bible]]
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| - | [[ca:La ciència i la Bíblia]]
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