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{{dablink|This article is about the term "Hebrew Bible". For the Jewish canon, see [[Tanakh]]. For the various Christian canons, see [[Old Testament]].}}
[[Image:Targum.jpg|right|thumb|11th century manuscript of the Hebrew Bible with Aramaic [[Targum]]]]

The term '''Hebrew Bible''' is a generic reference to those books of the [[Bible]] originally written mostly in [[Biblical Hebrew]] with some [[Biblical Aramaic]]. The term closely corresponds to contents of the Jewish [[Tanakh]] and the Protestant [[Old Testament]] (see also [[Judeo-Christian]]) but does not include the [[deuterocanonical]] portions of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] or the ''Anagignoskomena'' portions of the [[Eastern Orthodox]] Old Testaments. The term does not imply naming, numbering or ordering of books, which varies (see also [[Biblical canon]]).

==Usage==
''Hebrew Bible'' is a term that refers to the common portions of the [[Tanakh]] (Jewish canon) and the [[Bible#Christian Bible|Christian canons]]. In its [[Latin]] form, ''[[Biblia Hebraica]]'', it traditionally serves as a title for printed editions of the [[Masoretic Text]].

Many [[scholar]]s advocate use of the term ''Hebrew Bible'' when discussing these books in academic writing, as a neutral substitute to terms with religious connotations. The [[Society of Biblical Literature]]'s ''Handbook of Style'', which is the standard for major academic journals like ''[[Harvard Theological Review]]'' and conservative Protestant journals like ''[[Bibliotheca Sacra]]'' and ''[[Westminster Theological Journal]]'', suggests that authors "be aware of the connotations of alternative expressions such as ... Hebrew Bible [and] Old Testament" without prescribing the use of either.

Additional difficulties include:

*In terms of theology, Christianity has struggled with the [[Old Testament#Relationship between Old and New Testament|relationship between "old" and "new" testaments]] from its very beginnings.<ref name="marcion_britannica" /><ref>For the modern debate, see [[Biblical law in Christianity]]</ref> Modern Christian formulations of this tension, sometimes building upon ancient and medieval ideas, include [[supersessionism]], [[covenant theology]], [[dispensationalism]], and [[dual covenant theology]]. However, all of these formulations, except some forms of dual-covenant theology, are objectionable to mainstream Judaism and to many Jewish scholars and writers, for whom there is only one everlasting covenant, and who therefore reject the very term "Old Testament".
*In terms of [[Development of the Christian Biblical canon|canon]], Christian usage of "Old Testament" does not refer to a universally agreed upon set of books, but rather varies depending on [[Christian denominations|denomination]].
*Though commonly used by Jews, the term ''[[Tanakh]]'' is derived from an [[acronym]] of the Hebrew names of the constituent parts of the Hebrew Bible, [[Torah]] ("Teaching"), [[Nevi'im]] ("Prophets"), and [[Ketuvim]] ("Writings"), and is unlikely to be appreciated by readers unfamiliar with that language and culture. It also refers to the particular arrangement of the biblical books as found in Judaism, and even to the exact features of the Masoretic Text. None of this is central to the Bible in the Christian textual tradition.
[[Image:Bar Kokhba Coin.jpg|thumb|left|Coin from Bar-Kokhba Revolt demonstrating [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|Paleo-Hebrew]]]]

''Hebrew'' in the term ''Hebrew Bible'' refers to the original language of the books, but it may also be taken as referring to the Jews of the [[second temple]] era and the [[Diaspora]], who preserved the transmission of the text up to the age of printing {{Fact|date=March 2008}}. The Hebrew Bible includes some small portions in [[Biblical Aramaic|Aramaic]] (mostly in the books of [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] and [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]]), which are nonetheless written and printed in the [[Hebrew alphabet]] and script, which is the same as ''Aramaic square-script''. Some [[Qumran]] Hebrew biblical manuscripts are written using the [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet]] of the ''classical era'' of [[Solomon's Temple]]. <ref>[http://faculty.bbc.edu/ggromacki/deadseascrolls/bible.htm] DOCTRINE OF THE BIBLE</ref> The famous examples of the ''Paleo-Hebrew alphabet'' are the [[Siloam inscription]] (8th century BCE), the [[Lachish]] ostraca (6th century BCE), and the ''Bar Kokhba coin'' (circa 132 CE).

==Origin and History==
''See Also [[Dating the Bible]]''

Many contemporary secular biblical scholars date the origin of the Hebrew Bible to the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian period]] (539 to 334 BCE).<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=9kxLOH5XaAMC&pg=PA33&ots=rVg7OTu3iS&dq=the+israelites+in+history+and+tradition&sig=qMcGZ0XnrBEqqEC_2e8rKrpiWUY#PPA33,M1 John Joseph Collins, "The Bible After Babel", (2005)]</ref>

==Meaning of ''old'' in Old Testament==
{{seealso|Biblical law in Christianity|Development of the Old Testament canon}}
<!-- [[Judaism and Christianity]] links to this sub-section -->
Another important issue relevant to use of ''Hebrew Bible'' rather than ''Old Testament'' is the documented misunderstanding of the sense of ''old'' in ''Old Testament''. In Christianity ''old'' in ''Old Testament'' essentially refers to time. In French it is ''[[:fr:Ancien Testament|Ancien Testament]]'', in Latin ''Vetus Testamentum'' (like ''Vetus Latina'' [[Old Latin]]), in Greek ''hē palaia diathēkē'' ({{polytonic|Ἡ Παλαιὰ Διαθήκη}}, ''palaios'' gives several English prefixes like ''[[palaeography]]''). There is additional, confessional implication, but the semantics of this is non-trivial, related to the meaning of ''Testament'' rather than the meaning of ''Old''.

Christian commentary on the New Testament understanding of the relationship between the Testaments became controversial in the 2nd century and remains controversial today, see [[Old Testament#Relationship between Old and New Testament|Old Testament]] for details.

The controversy arose when [[Marcion]] and his followers held the Hebrew scriptures to be inferior (the work of a [[demiurge]]) and [[supersessionism|superseded]] by the revelation of Christ. Along with [[Gnosticism]], this view has the dubious distinction of being one of the first to be classed as [[Heresy|heretical]] by the early Christian "[[peer review]]" process.<ref name="marcion_britannica">'Marcion', in Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911.</ref> The [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] notes that Marcion "rejected the writings of the Old Testament" and claims that the [[Marcionites]] "were perhaps the most dangerous foe Christianity has ever known."<ref>'Marcionites', in Catholic Encyclopedia.</ref>

Both Gnosticism (with its additional [[Pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphal]] gospels) and Marcion (with his limited canon) stimulated early Christian efforts to find consensus regarding a canon of scripture. Ultimately [[Proto-orthodox Christianity|Proto-orthodox Christian]] consensus excluded Gnostic books and included the Hebrew scriptures (most often the Greek Septuagint translation of them), but remained elusive regarding some New Testament books, see also [[Antilegomena]]. The continued use of the Hebrew scriptures as scripture was a deliberate and significant decision. It was a decision that meant they were accepted as authoritative on matters of doctrine and normative for matters of everyday life.

The word ''testament'', attributed to [[Tertullian]] or ''Marcion''<ref>Everett Ferguson in chapter 18 of ''The Canon Debate'' quotes [[Tertullian]]'s ''De praescriptione haereticorum'' 30: "Since Marcion separated the New Testament from the Old, he is necessarily subsequent to that which he separated, inasmuch as it was only in his power to separate what was previously united. Having been united previous to its separation, the fact of its subsequent separation proves the subsequence also of the man who effected the separation." Note 61 of page 308 adds: "[Wolfram] Kinzig suggests that it was Marcion who usually called his Bible ''testamentum'' [Latin for testament]."</ref> or [[Melito of Sardis]]<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=QkI_JNv3rIwC&pg=PA316&lpg=PA316&dq=melito+%22old+testament%22+%22first+used%22&source=bl&ots=9_tprGuiPx&sig=sygOITuaZ7Dok0yZK2aBmqe7iOk&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result</ref>, is commonly confused with the biblical word [[covenant (biblical)|covenant]], meaning a contract or deal. The [[Jewish Encyclopedia]] notes several covenants between God and man in the Tanakh, including: Noah, Abraham, Moses, Aaron and David.<ref>'Covenant', in ''Jewish Encyclopedia'', 1906, [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=837&letter=C&search=Covenant online link]</ref> It also discusses [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah's prophecy]] of a [[New Covenant|"new covenant"]] (''berit hadashah'' in Hebrew, {{bibleverse||Jeremiah|31:30|HE}}) and comments: "Christianity . . . interpreted the words of the prophet in such a way as to indicate a new religious dispensation in place of the law of Moses ([[Book of Hebrews|Hebrews]] 8:8-13)."<ref>''Ibid'', [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=837&letter=C&search=Covenant#2888 The Old and the New Covenant], [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=245&letter=N&search=New%20Testament New Testament]</ref>

Christians of all traditions could be cited that would acknowledge the understanding the Jewish Encyclopedia expresses in this article. However, just as the Jewish Encyclopedia acknowledges a series of covenants, that are nonetheless in some sense united, so in fact does ecumenical Christianity, the significant difference being that many Christians believe that some of the covenants, or parts of some covenants, have in some sense been [[antinomianism|nullified]].{{Fact|date=July 2008}} The term ''[[dispensation]]'' is common in English language Christian theology in addressing the complicated issues Christians have found in understanding the relationships between the covenants in the Hebrew scriptures, and between those covenants and what the [[New Testament]] (often associated with the [[New Covenant]]) says about its own relationship to prior covenants (see [[Dispensationalism]]).

In [[covenant theology]] (a theological framework distinctive of, but not exclusive to, the [[Reformed churches]]), the scriptures are interpreted as teaching that God's original purpose was to create for himself one covenant people, which was to be found in the people of Israel in the years before the [[Messiah]], and later expanded to universal salvation through the Messiah.<ref>Romans 9:6ff; 11:1-7 are often quoted.</ref> Under this interpretation, ''old'' in ''Old Testament'' refers to the age before expansion of the covenant through the Messiah and the New Testament present [[Jesus]] and his followers as being opposed for preaching this message of [[gentile]] (non-Jewish) inclusion.

From the Jewish perspective, the New Testament appropriates parts of Jewish tradition, such as [[B'nei Noah]] and [[Proselyte]], to the benefit of Christians, see also [[Council of Jerusalem]]. [[Rabbi Emden]] noted the following reconciliation<ref>[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&letter=G#543 Gentile: Gentiles May Not Be Taught the Torah]</ref>: {{cquote|... the original intention of Jesus, and especially of Paul, was to convert only the Gentiles to the [[Seven Laws of Noah|seven moral laws of Noah]] and to let the Jews follow the [[Mosaic law]] &mdash; which explains the apparent contradictions in the [[New Testament]] regarding the [[Biblical law in Christianity|laws of Moses]] and the [[Biblical Sabbath|Sabbath]].}} This is a serious matter for believers in both faiths, and a matter that scholars of those faiths often wish to leave out of contention when co-operating on projects of common interest, such as the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]]. This is another reason non-confessional terms like ''Hebrew Bible'' suit themselves to academic, and other, discourse.

==Usage==

Using the term ''Hebrew Bible'', then, is an attempt to provide specificity with respect to contents, while avoiding allusion to any particular interpretative tradition or theological school of thought.

On the one hand, the term is not much used among adherents of either Judaism or Christianity. On the other hand, it is widely used in academic writing and interfaith discussion. In short, the term 'Hebrew Bible' is mostly to be found employed in relatively neutral contexts that are meant to include dialogue amongst all religious traditions, but not widely found in the inner discourse of the religions which use its text.

==Specific canons==
Because "Hebrew Bible" refers to the ''common'' portions of the Jewish and Christian biblical canons {{Fact|date=March 2008}}, it does not encompass the [[deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]] or [[Biblical apocrypha|apocryphal books]], which were preserved in the [[Koine Greek|Greek]] [[Septuagint]] (LXX), and are part of the [[Old Testament]] in the canons of the [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] churches {{Fact|date=March 2008}}. Thus the term "Hebrew Bible" corresponds most fully to the [[Old Testament]] in use by [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations (adhering to [[Jerome]]'s ''Hebraica veritas'' doctrine), and less fully to canons that are based closely on the [[Septuagint]] (adhering to [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]'s 393 [[Synod of Hippo]] and 397-419 [[Councils of Carthage]]).

Because the term implies a favoritism towards the Masoretic text, however, critics of the Masoretic text also tend to avoid using this term. The Orthodox Church specifically endorses the Septuagint (Greek) text of the Old Testament, not only because they believe it to be more complete, but also because it is most likely the text used by the [[Early Christianity|earliest Christians]], appears to be the most widely quoted text in the New Testament, and in many places is more christological than the Masoretic text.

Usage of the term in contexts that refer to the deuterocanonical or apocryphal books, or that refer to the Septuagint text or translations based primarily on the Septuagint text, is thus inaccurate.

==Biblia Hebraica==
The Biblia Hebraica is edited by various [[Germany|German]] publishers.
*Between 1906 and 1955 [[Rudolf Kittel]] published 9 editions of it.
*1966, the [[Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft]] published the renamed [[Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia]] in six editions until 1997.
*Since 2004 the Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft publishes the [[Biblia Hebraica Quinta]] including all variants of the [[Qumran]] manuscripts as well as the [[Masora Magna]].

==See also==
*[[Books of the Bible]] for the differences between Bible versions of different groups, or the much more detailed [[Biblical canon]].
*[[Table of books of Judeo-Christian Scripture]]
*[[Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible]]
*[[Development of the Jewish Bible canon]]
*[[Society of Biblical Literature]], creators of the SBL Handbook which recommends both standards and alternatives in biblical terminology.
*[[Masoretic Text]], the standard Hebrew text recognized by most [[Judeo-Christian]] groups.
*[[Torah]]
*[[Christianity and Judaism]]
*[[Biblical law in Christianity]]

==References==

==Further reading==
*cite book | first=Paul | last=Johnson | authorlink=Paul Johnson (writer) | year=1987 | title=A History of the Jews | edition=First, hardback | publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson | location=London | isbn=0-297-79091-9
*Kuntz, John Kenneth. ''The People of Ancient Israel: an introduction to Old Testament Literature, History, and Thought'', Harper and Row, 1974. ISBN 0-06-043822-3
*''[http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1195546723809&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull Nothing old about it]'' by Shmuley Boteach (Jerusalem Post, November 28, 2007).

==External Links==
* [http://www.trinitarianbiblesociety.org/site/articles/heb.asp Trinitarian Bible Society - A Brief History of the Hebrew Bible] by Debra E. Anderson

[[Category:Bible]]
[[Category:Hebrew Bible| ]]
[[Category:Fertile Crescent]]
[[Category:Christian viewpoints]]

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