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| - | A person's '''vocabulary''' is the set of [[word]]s within a [[language]] that are familiar to that person. A vocabulary usually develops with age, and serves as a useful and fundamental tool for [[communication]] and [[learning|acquiring knowledge]]. Acquiring an extensive vocabulary is one of the largest challenges in learning a [[second language]].
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| - | == Knowing and using a word == | + | |
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| - | Vocabulary is commonly defined as "all the words known and used by a particular person".<ref>[http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=88554&dict=CALD Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary]</ref> Unfortunately, this definition does not take into account a range of issues involved in ''knowing'' a word.
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| - | === Productive and receptive ===
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| - | The first major distinction that must be made when evaluating word knowledge is whether the knowledge is productive (also called active) or receptive (also called passive) and even within those opposing categories, there is oftentimes no clear distinction. Words that are generally understood when heard or read or seen constitute a person's receptive vocabulary. These words may range from well-known to barely known (see [[Vocabulary#Degree_of_knowledge|degree of knowledge]] below). In most cases, a person's receptive vocabulary is the larger of the two. For example, although a young child may not yet be able to speak, write, or sign, he or she may be able to follow simple commands and appear to understand a good portion of the language to which he or she is exposed. In this case, the child's receptive vocabulary is likely tens, if not hundreds of words but his or her active vocabulary is zero. When that child learns to speak or sign, however, the child's active vocabulary begins to increase. It is possible for the productive vocabulary to be larger than the receptive vocabulary, for example in a second-language learner who has learned words through study rather than exposure, and can produce them, but has difficulty recognizing them in conversation.
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| - | Productive vocabulary, therefore, generally refers to words which can be produced within an appropriate context and match the intended meaning of the speaker or signer. As with receptive vocabulary, however, there are many degrees at which a particular word may be considered part of an active vocabulary. Knowing how to pronounce, sign, or write a word does not necessarily mean that the word has been used to correctly or accurately reflect the intended message of the utterance, but it does reflect a minimal amount of productive knowledge.
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| - | === Degree of knowledge ===
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| - | Within the receptive / productive distinction lies a range of abilities which are often referred to as ''degree of knowledge''. This simply indicates that a word gradually enters a person's vocabulary over a period of time as more aspects of word knowledge are learnt. Roughly, these stages could be described as:
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| - | # Never encountered the word.
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| - | # Heard the word, but cannot define it.
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| - | # Recognize the word due to context or tone of voice.
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| - | # Able to use the word and understand the general and/or intended meaning, but cannot clearly explain it.
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| - | # Fluent with the word – its use and definition.
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| - | === Depth of knowledge ===
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| - | The differing degrees of word knowledge imply a greater ''depth of knowledge'', but the process is more complex than that. There are many facets to knowing a word, some of which are not hierarchical so their acquisition does not necessarily follow a linear progression suggested by ''degree of knowledge''. Several frameworks of work knowledge have been proposed to better operationalise this concept. One such framework includes nine facets:
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| - | # [[orthography]] - written form
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| - | # [[phonology]] - spoken form
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| - | # [[Referent|reference]] - meaning
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| - | # [[semantics]] - concept and reference
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| - | # [[Register (phonology)|register]] - appropriacy of use
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| - | # [[collocation]] - lexical neighbours
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| - | # [[Word_association|word associations]]
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| - | # [[syntax]] - grammatical function
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| - | # [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] - word parts
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| - | == Types of vocabulary ==
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| - | ''Listed in order of most ample to most limited:''<ref>Barnhart, Clarence L. (1968).</ref><ref>''The World Book Dictionary''. Clarence L. Barnhart. 1968 Edition. Published by Thorndike-Barnhart, Chicago, Illinois.</ref>
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| - | === Reading vocabulary ===
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| - | A literate person's [[Reading (process)|reading]] vocabulary is all the words he or she can recognize when reading. This is generally the largest type of vocabulary simply because it includes the other three, though in some cases, notably [[Chinese character]]s, as in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]], where the pronunciation is not transparent, some words may be part of the oral vocabulary but not the written. For example, a Chinese speaker may not recognize that 麒麟 is pronounced ''qi lin'', a Japanese speaker may not recognize that 麒麟 is pronounced ''kirin.''
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| - | === Listening vocabulary === | + | |
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| - | A person's [[listening]] vocabulary is all the words he or she can recognize when listening to speech. This vocabulary is aided in size by context and tone of voice.
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| - | === Speaking vocabulary ===
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| - | A person's speaking vocabulary is all the words he or she can use in [[speech]]. Due to the spontaneous nature of the speaking vocabulary, words are often misused. This misuse – though slight and unintentional – may be compensated by facial expressions, tone of voice, or hand [[gesture]]s.
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| - | == Focal vocabulary ==
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| - | "Focal vocabulary" is a specialized set of terms and distinctions that is particularly important to a certain group; those with a particular focus of experience or activity. A lexicon, or vocabulary, is a language's dictionary, its set of names for things, events, and ideas. Some linguists believe that lexicon influences people's perception on things, the [[Sapir–Whorf hypothesis]]. For example, the Nuer of Sudan have an elaborate vocabulary to describe cattle. The [[Nuer people|Nuer]] have dozens of names for cattle because of the cattle's particular histories, economies, and environments. This kind of comparison has elicited some linguistic controversy, as with the number of "[[Eskimo words for snow]]". English speakers can also elaborate their snow and cattle vocabularies when the need arises.<ref>Miller (1989)</ref><ref>Lenkeit</ref>
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| - | == Vocabulary growth ==
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| - | {{main|Vocabulary development}}
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| - | During his/her infancy, a child builds a vocabulary by instinct, with zero effort. [[Infant]]s imitate words that they hear and then associate those words with objects and actions. This is the [[Vocabulary#Listening vocabulary|listening vocabulary]]. The [[Vocabulary#Speaking vocabulary|speaking vocabulary]] follows, as a child's thoughts become more reliant on his/her ability to self-express in a gesture-free and babble-free manner. Once the [[Vocabulary#Reading vocabulary|reading]] and [[Vocabulary#Writing vocabulary|writing vocabularies]] are attained – through questions and [[education]] – the anomalies and irregularities of language can be discovered.
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| - | In [[first grade]], an advantaged student (i.e. a literate student) learns about twice as many words as a disadvantaged student. Generally, this gap does not tighten. This translates into a wide range of vocabulary size by age five or six, at which time an English-speaking child will have learned about 2,500–5,000 words. An average student learns some 3,000 words per year, or approximately eight words per day.<ref>"Vocabulary". Sebastian Wren, Ph.D. BalancedReading.com http://www.balancedreading.com/vocabulary.html</ref>
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| - | After leaving school, vocabulary growth reaches a plateau. People usually then expand their vocabularies by engaging in activities such as reading, playing [[word game]]s, and by participating in vocabulary-related programs.
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| - | == The importance of a vocabulary ==
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| - | * An extensive vocabulary aids expressions and communication.
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| - | * Vocabulary size has been directly linked to reading comprehension.<ref name=Stahl1999>Stahl, Steven A. Vocabulary Development. Cambridge: Brookline Books, 1999. p. 3. "The Cognitive Foundations of Learning to Read: A Framework", Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, [http://www.sedl.org/reading/framework/research.html#reading], p. 14.</ref>
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| - | * Linguistic vocabulary is synonymous with thinking vocabulary.<ref name=Stahl1999 />
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| - | * A person may be judged by others based on his or her vocabulary.
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| - | == Native- and foreign-language vocabulary ==
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| - | === Native-language vocabulary ===
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| - | Native speakers' vocabularies vary widely within a language, and are especially dependent on the level of the speaker's education. A 1995 study estimated the vocabulary size of college-educated speakers at about 17,000 word families{{Clarify|date=October 2009}}, and that of first-year college students (high-school educated) at about 12,000.<ref>E.B. Zechmeister, A.M. Chronis, W.L. Cull, C.A. D'Anna and N.A. Healy, Growth of a functionally important lexicon, ''Journal of Reading Behavior'', 1995, '''27'''(2), 201-212</ref>
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| - | === Foreign-language vocabulary ===
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| - | ==== The effects of vocabulary size on language comprehension ====
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| - | <!--MOST OF THE SECTION IS WRITTEN LIKE A TUTORIAL INTRODUCTION; IT NEEDS A MORE ENCYCLOPEDICALLY FACTUALLY DRY TONE. -->Francis and Kucera<ref>W.N. Francis, and H. Kucera. ''Frequency Analysis of English Usage'', Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1982</ref> studied English texts totaling one million words and found that the learning of the most frequent words in an English text provides a comprehension of most of the words in those texts:
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| - | {| class="wikitable"
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| - | ! Vocabulary Size
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| - | ! Written Text Coverage
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| - | | 1000 words
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| - | | 72.0%
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| - | |-
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| - | | 2000
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| - | | 79.7
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| - | |-
| + | |
| - | | 3000
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| - | | 84.0
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| - | | 4000
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| - | | 86.8
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| - | |-
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| - | | 5000
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| - | | 88.7
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| - | |-
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| - | | 6000
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| - | | 89.9
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| - | |-
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| - | | 15,851
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| - | | 97.8
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| - | |}
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| - | The knowledge of the 2000 most frequent English words provides a comprehension of 80% of English words. The figures look even better than this if we want to cover the words we come across in an informally spoken context. Then the 2000 most common words would cover 96% of the vocabulary.<ref>Schonell, et al. 1956</ref> These numbers should be encouraging to beginning language learners, especially because the numbers in the table are for word [[Lemma (morphology)|lemmas]] and knowing that many word families would give even higher coverage. However, the number of words needed may differ substantially between different languages.
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| - | ===== Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition =====
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| - | Learning vocabulary is one of the first steps of learning a second language, yet a learner never finishes vocabulary acquisition. Whether in one’s native language or a second language, the acquisition of new vocabulary is a continual process. Many methods can help one acquire new vocabulary.
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| - | ===== Memorization =====
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| - | Although memorization can be seen as tedious or boring, associating one word in the native language with the corresponding word in the second language until memorized is considered one of the best methods of vocabulary acquisition. By the time students reach adulthood, they generally have gathered a number of personalized memorization methods. Although many argue that memorization does not typically require the complex cognitive processing that increases retention (Sagarra & Alba, 2006),<ref name="Spanish p. 228-243">Sagarra, Nuria, & Alba, Matthew. (2006). The Key Is in the Keyword: L2 Vocabulary Learning Methods With Beginning Learners of Spanish. The Modern Language Journal, 90, ii. p. 228-243.</ref> it does typically require a large amount of repetition, and [[spaced repetition]] with [[flashcard]]s is an established method for memorization, particularly used for vocabulary acquisition in [[computer-assisted language learning]]. Other methods typically require more time and longer to recall.
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| - | Some words cannot be easily linked through association or other methods. When a word in the second language is phonologically or visually similar to a word in the native language, one often assumes they also share similar meanings. Though this is frequently the case, it is not always true. When faced with a false cognate, memorization and repetition are the keys to mastery. If a second language learner relies solely on word associations to learn new vocabulary, that person will have a very difficult time mastering false cognates. When large amounts of vocabulary must be acquired in a limited amount of time, when the learner needs to recall information quickly, when words represent abstract concepts or are difficult to picture in a mental image, or when discriminating between false cognates, rote memorization is the method to use. A neural network model of novel word learning across orthographies, accounting for L1-specific memorization abilities of L2-learners has recently been introduced (Hadzibeganovic & Cannas, 2009).<ref name="novel word learning">Hadzibeganovic Tarik & Cannas, Sergio A. (2009). A Tsallis' statistics based neural network model for novel word learning. Physica A, 388, pp. 732-746.</ref>
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| - | ===== The Keyword Method =====
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| - | One useful method to build vocabulary in a second language is the keyword method. When additional time is available or one wants to emphasize a few key words, one can create mnemonic devices or word associations. Although these strategies tend to take longer to implement and may take longer in recollection, they create new or unusual connections that can increase retention. The keyword method requires deeper cognitive processing, thus increasing the likelihood of retention (Sagarra & Alba, 2006).<ref name="Spanish p. 228-243"/> This method uses fits within Paivio’s (1986)<ref>Paivio, A. (1986). Mental Representations: A Dual Coding Approach. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref>
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| - | dual coding theory because it uses both two verbal and image memory systems. However, this method should be used only with words that represent concrete and imageable things. Abstract concepts or words that do not bring a distinct image to mind are difficult to associate. In addition, studies have shown that associative vocabulary learning is more successful with younger aged students (Sagarra & Alba, 2006).<ref name="Spanish p. 228-243"/> As students advance and age, they tend to rely less on creating word associations to remember vocabulary.
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| - | === Basic English vocabulary ===
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| - | Several word lists have been developed to provide people with a limited vocabulary either quick language proficiency or an effective means of communication. In 1930, Charles Kay Ogden created [[Basic English]] (850 words). Other lists include [[Simplified English]] (1000 words) and [[Special English]] (1500 words). The [[General Service List]],<ref>West (1953)</ref> 2000 high frequency words compiled by [[Michael Philip West|Michael West]] from a 5,000,000 word corpus, has been used to create a number of adapted reading texts for English language learners. The knowledge of 2,000 English words provides a comprehension of most of the English language, enough to render one literate.
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| - | === Vocabulary differences between social classes in the U.S.A. ===
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| - | James Flynn reports the remarkable differences in vocabulary exposure of pre-schoolers between different classes in the U.S.A. Apparently, pre-schoolers of professional families are typically exposed to 2,150 different words, pre-schoolers from working class families to 1,250 words, while those from households on welfare just 620.<ref>Flynn (2008), p. 102.</ref>
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| - | == See also ==
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| - | *[[Differences between American and British English (vocabulary)]]
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| - | *[[Language proficiency]] (Linguistic proficiency) The ability of an individual to speak or perform in an acquired language).
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| - | == Footnotes ==
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| - | == References ==
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| - | *Barnhart, Clarence Lewis (ed.) (1968). ''The World Book Dictionary''. Chicago: Thorndike-Barnhart, {{oclc|437494}}
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| - | *Flynn, James Robert (2008). ''Where have all the liberals gone? : race, class, and ideals in America''. Cambridge University Press; 1st edition. ISBN 978-0-521-49431-1 {{oclc|231580885}}
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| - | *Lenkeit, Roberta Edwards (2007) ''Introducing cultural anthropology'' Boston: McGraw-Hill (3rd. ed.)
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| - | *Liu, Na and I.S.P. Nation. [http://ac.aua.am/lena_simonyan/Public/RELC%20journal/Liu%20Na,1985.Factors%20Affecting%20Guessing%20Vocabulary%20in%20Context.pdf "Factors affecting guessing vocabulary in context"], ''RELC Journal'', 1985,'''16''' 1, pp. 33–42. {{doi|10.1177/003368828501600103}}
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| - | *Miller, Barbara D. (1999). ''Cultural Anthropology''(4th ed.) Boston: Allyn and Bacon, p.315 {{oclc|39101950}}
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| - | *Schonell, Sir Fred Joyce, Ivor G. Meddleton and B. A. Shaw, ''A study of the oral vocabulary of adults : an investigation into the spoken vocabulary of the Australian worker'', University of Queensland Press, Brisbane, 1956.
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| - | *West, Michael (1953). ''A general service list of English words, with semantic frequencies and a supplementary word-list for the writing of popular science and technology'' London, New York: Longman, Green {{oclc|318957}}
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| - | ==External links==
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| - | * [http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/resources/vocrefs/bibliography.aspx Bibliography on vocabulary] I.S.P. Nation's extensive collection of research on vocabulary.
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| - | * [http://www.lognostics.co.uk/varga/ Vocabulary Acquisition Research Group Archive] An extensive bibliographic database on vocabulary acquisition maintained by Paul Meara and the Vocabulary Acquisition Research Group at Swansea University.
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| - | * [http://my.vocabularysize.com VocabularySize.com] - a free web-based service which implements the I.S.P. Nation's English Vocabulary Size Test in an online format.
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| - | * [http://www.learnthat.org/vocabulary LearnThatWord.org] - a free online vocabulary building tool managed by nonprofit, where you only pay for measured learning results.
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| - | * [http://meaning.wordinn.com/ Wordinn Vocabulary] - Easy vocabulary building with meaning and definitions.
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| - | * [http://www.freerice.com/ FreeRice Vocabulary Game]
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