View source for Aorist (Ancient Greek)

''See Also [[Aorist]]''
In the grammar of [[Ancient Greek]], including [[Koine Greek|Koine]], the '''aorist''' (ər|ɨ|s|t) is a class of [[verb]] forms that generally portray a situation as simple or undivided, that is, as having [[perfective aspect]].  In the grammatical terminology of classical Greek, it is a ''tense'', one of the seven divisions of the [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] of a verb, found in all [[grammatical mood|moods]] and [[voice (grammar)|voices]].

==Terminology==
In traditional grammatical terminology, the aorist is a "tense", a section of the verb paradigm formed with the same [[word stem|stem]] across all [[grammatical mood|moods]]. By contrast, in [[theoretical linguistics]], [[grammatical tense|tense]] refers to a form that specifies a point in time (past, present, or future).

The literary Greek of Athens in the fifth and fourth centuries BC, [[Attic Greek]], was the standard school-room form of Greek for centuries. This article therefore chiefly describes the Attic aorist, describing the variants at other times and in other dialects as needed. The poems of Homer were studied in Athens, and may have been compiled there; they are in Epic or [[Homeric Greek]], an artificial blend of several dialects, not including Attic. The Homeric aorist differs in morphology from Attic, but the educated Athenians imitated Homeric syntax. 

Conversely, Hellenistic or [[Koine Greek]] was a blend of several dialects after the conquests of Alexander; most of the written texts that survive in Koine imitate the Attic taught in schools to a greater or lesser extent, but the spoken language of the writers appears to have simplified and regularized the formation of the aorist, and some of the features of Attic syntax are much less frequently attested.

==Morphology==
A verb may have either a first aorist or a second aorist: the distinction is like that between [[Germanic weak verb|weak]] and [[Germanic strong verb|strong verb]]s in English ("try" -> "tried"; "write" -> "wrote").  A very few verbs have both types of aorist, sometimes with a distinction of meaning: for example ἵστημι (to set up or cause to stand) has both ἕστησα and ἕστην as aorists, but the first has a transitive meaning ("I set up") and the second an intransitive meaning ("I stood").

===First===
The [[word stem|stem]] of the '''first aorist''' is marked by -σα- in the active and middle voice,<sup>[]</sup> and -θη- in the passive voice.<sup>[]</sup> Because of the σ ([[sigma]]), it is also called '''sigmatic aorist'''.

====Compensatory lengthening====
[[Compensatory lengthening]] affects first aorist forms whose verbal root ends in a [[sonorant]] ([[nasal stop|nasal]] or [[liquid consonant|liquid]]: ν, μ, ρ, λ).<sup>[]</sup>

In [[Attic Greek|Attic]] and [[Ionic Greek]] (also in [[Doric Greek|Doric]], with some differences), the σ in the first aorist suffix causes [[compensatory lengthening]] of the vowel before the sonorant, producing a long vowel (α → η or ᾱ, ε → ει, ι → ῑ, ο → ου, υ → ῡ).

In [[Aeolic Greek]] (which contributes some forms to [[Homeric Greek|Homeric]]), the σ causes compensatory lengthening of the sonorant instead of the vowel, producing a [[gemination|double]] consonant (ν → νν, λ → λλ).

The present stem sometimes undergoes sound changes caused by a suffix — for instance, [[palatal approximant|-ι̯-]] ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/j/}}, English consonantal [[y]]). In this case, the aorist is formed from the verbal root without the present-stem sound changes.

{| class="wikitable polytonic" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" | present !! colspan="3" | aorist !! rowspan="2" | meaning
|-
! original form !! Attic !! original form !! Attic !! Aeolic
|-
| colspan="2" | μέν-ω<sup>[]</sup> || μεν-σα || ἔ-μεινα || *ἔ-μεννα || stay, wait for
|-
| στέλ-ι̯ω || στέλλω<sup>[]</sup> || στελ-σα || ἔ-στειλα || ἔ-στελλα || prepare, send
|-
| φάν-ι̯ω || φαίνω<sup>[]</sup> || φαν-σα || ἔ-φηνα || *ἔ-φαννα || show
|}

[[Paul Kiparsky|Kiparsky]] analyzes the process as [[debuccalization]] of ''s'' (σ) to ''h'' in [[Proto-Greek language|Proto-Greek]], [[metathesis (linguistics)|metathesis]] of ''h'' and the sonorant so that ''h'' comes before the sonorant, and [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]] of ''h'' to the vowel (Attic-Ionic-Doric) or to the consonant (Aeolic).<sup>[]</sup>
* ''men-sa'' → ''men-ha'' (debuccalization) → ''mehna'' (metathesis) → ''mēna'' or ''menna'' (compensatory lengthening)

====First aorist endings====
Most of the active and middle forms of the first aorist are similar to the forms of the present, except with an α in the endings instead of an ο or ε. The first person singular indicative active, second person singular imperfect middle, the second person singular imperatives, active infinitive, and masculine nominative singular of the participle (bolded), however, differ, and the subjunctive active and middle of the first aorist have endings identical to the present ones.

Most of the passive forms of the first aorist have endings similar to those of the root aorist.

{| class="wikitable polytonic"
|-
! λύω "release",<br>aor. λυσ(α)-
! indicative
! subjunctive
! optative
! imperative
! infinitive
! participle
|-
! active
| ἔλυσ'''α'''<br>ἔλυσας<br>ἔλυσε<br>ἐλύσαμεν<br>ἐλύσατε<br>ἔλυσαν
| λύσω<br>λύσῃς<br>λύσῃ<br>λύσωμεν<br>λύσητε<br>λύσωσι
| λύσαιμι<br>λύσαις<br>λύσαι<br>λύσαιμεν<br>λύσαιτε<br>λύσαιεν
| —<br>λῦσ'''ον'''<br>λυσάτω<br>—<br>λύσατε<br>λυσάντων/λυσάτωσαν
| λῦσ'''αι'''
| '''λύσας'''<br>λύσασα<br>λῦσαν
|-
! middle
| ἐλυσάμην<br>ἐλύσ'''ω'''<br>ἐλύσατο<br>ἐλυσάμεθα<br>ἐλύσασθε<br>ἐλύσαντο
| λύσωμαι<br>λύσῃ<br>λύσηται<br>λυσώμεθα<br>λύθησθε<br>λύσωνται
| λυσαίμην<br>λύσαιο<br>λύσαιτο<br>λυσαίμεθα<br>λύσαισθε<br>λύσαιντο
| —<br>λῦσ'''αι'''<br>λυσάσθω<br>—<br>λύσασθε<br>λυσάσθων/λυσάσθωσαν
| λύσασθαι
| λυσάμενος<br>λυσαμένη<br>λυσάμενον
|-
! passive
| ἐλύθην<br>ἐλύθης<br>ἐλύθη<br>ἐλύθημεν<br>ἐλύθητε<br>ἐλύθησαν
| λυθῶ<br>λυθῇς<br>λυθῇ<br>λυθῶμεν<br>λυθῆτε<br>λυθῶσι
| λυθείην<br>λυθείης<br>λυθείη<br>λυθείημεν/λυθεῖμεν<br>λυθείητε/λυθεῖτε<br>λυθείησαν/λυθεῖεν
| —<br>λύθητι<br>λυθήτω<br>—<br>λύθητε<br>λυθέντων/λυθήτωσαν
| λυθῆναι
| λυθείς<br>λυθεῖσα<br>λυθέν
|}

===Second===
The stem of the '''second aorist''' is the bare [[Proto-Indo-European root|root]] of the verb,<sup>[]</sup> or a [[reduplication|reduplicated]] version of the root.<sup>[]</sup> In these verbs, the present stem often has ''e''-grade of [[Indo-European ablaut|ablaut]] and adds a [[nasal infix]] or suffix to the basic verb root, but the aorist has zero-grade (no ''e'') and no infix or suffix.

====Zero-grade====
When the present has a [[diphthong]] (e.g., ει), the second aorist has the offglide of the diphthong (ι).
*present λ'''ε'''ίπω "leave", aorist λιπ({{frac|ο|ε}})- (e-grade in present, zero-grade in aorist)

When there is no vowel in the present stem besides the e of ablaut, the aorist has no vowel, or has an α from a [[syllabic consonant|vocalic]] ρ or λ.
*present πέτομαι "fly", aorist πτ({{frac|ο|ε}})- (e-grade in present, zero-grade in aorist)
*present τρέπω, aorist τραπ({{frac|ο|ε}})- (e-grade ρε in present, zero-grade ρ → ρα in aorist)

====Reduplication====
Present stems of verbs with a reduplicated aorist often do not have e-grade or an infix or suffix.
*present ἄγω "lead", aorist ἄγαγ({{frac|ο|ε}})- (bare stem in present, reduplicated stem in aorist)

====Second aorist endings====
The endings include an ο or ε ([[thematic vowel]]). In the indicative, endings are identical to those of the [[imperfect]]; in non-indicative moods, they are identical to those of the [[present tense|present]].

{| class="wikitable polytonic"
! λείπω "leave",<br>aor. λιπ({{frac|ο|ε}})-
! indicative
! subjunctive
! optative
! imperative
! infinitive
! participle
|-
! active
| ἔλιπον<br>ἔλιπες<br>ἔλιπεν<br>ἐλίπομεν<br>ἐλίπετε<br>ἔλιπον
| λίπω<br>λίπῃς<br>λίπῃ<br>λίπωμεν<br>λίπητε<br>λίπωσιν
| λίποιμι<br>λίποις<br>λίποι<br>λίποιμεν<br>λίποιτε<br>λίποιεν
| —<br>λίπε<br>λιπέτω<br>—<br>λίπετε<br>λιπόντων
| λιπεῖν
| λιπών<br>λιποῦσα<br>λιπόν
|-
! middle
| ἐλιπόμην<br>ἐλίπου<br>ἐλίπετο<br>ἐλιπόμεθα<br>ἐλίπεσθε<br>ἐλίποντο
| λίπωμαι<br>λίπῃ/ει<br>λίπηται<br>λιπώμεθα<br>λίπησθε<br>λίπωνται
| λιποίμην<br>λίποιο<br>λίποιτο<br>λιποίμεθα<br>λιποίεσθε<br>λίποιντο
| —<br>λιποῦ<br>λιπέσθω<br>—<br>λίπεσθε<br>λιπέσθων
| λιπέσθαι
| λιπόμενος<br>λιπομένη<br>λιπόμενον
|-
! passive
| ἐβλἁβην<br>ἐβλἁβης<br>ἐβλἁβη<br>ἐβλἁβημεν<br>ἐβλἁβητε<br>ἐβλἁβησαν
| βλαβῶ<br>βλαβῇς<br>βλαβῇ<br>βλαβῶμεν<br>βλαβῆτε<br>βλαβῶσι
| βλαβείην<br>βλαβείης<br>βλαβείη<br>βλαβείημεν/βλαβεῖμεν<br>βλαβείητε/βλαβεῖτε<br>βλαβείησαν/βλαβεῖεν
| —<br>βλἁβητι<br>βλαβήτω<br>—<br>βλἁβητε<br>βλαβέντων/βλαβήτωσαν
| βλαβῆναι
| βλαβείς<br>βλαβεῖσα<br>βλαβέν
|}

====Second aorist passive====
A second aorist passive is distinguished from a first aorist passive only by the absence of θ.  A few verbs have passive aorists in both forms, with no distinction in meaning.

There is no correlation between the first/second aorist distinction in the active and the passive: a verb with an active second aorist may have a passive first aorist or vice versa.

===Root===
The '''root aorist''' is characteristic of athematic verbs (those with a present active in -μι). Like the second aorist, the stem is the bare root, and endings are similar to the imperfect in the indicative, and identical to the present in non-indicative moods. It is sometimes included as a subcategory of the second aorist<sup>[]</sup> because of these similarities, but unlike the second aorist of thematic verbs, it has no thematic {{frac|ο|ε}}.

The singular aorist indicative active of some athematic verbs (τίθημι, ἔθηκα; δίδωμι, ἔδωκα) uses a stem formed by the suffix -κα and takes first aorist rather than root aorist endings.<sup>[]</sup>

==Syntax==
The aorist generally presents a situation as an undivided whole, also known as the [[perfective aspect]].<sup>[]</sup>

===Indicative mood===
The aorist usually implies a past event in the indicative, but  it does not assert pastness, and can be used of present or future events. 
*ἀπωλόμην ἄρ᾽, εἴ με δὴ λείψεις, γύναι.
:I am undone if you will leave me, wife.
::[[Euripides]] [[Alcestis|Alcestis_(play)]] [[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0087:card=386 386]]

====Narrative====
The aorist and the imperfect are the standard tenses for telling a story. The ordinary distinction between them is between an action considered as a single undivided event and the action as a continuous event. Thus, for example, a process as a whole can be described in the imperfect, while the individual steps in that process will be aorist.
*ἔπαιζε ἐν τῇ κώμῃ ταύτῃ ... μετ᾽ ἄλλων ἡλίκων ἐν ὁδῷ. καὶ οἱ παῖδες παίζοντες '''εἵλοντο''' ἑωυτῶν βασιλέα εἶναι... ὁ δὲ αὐτῶν '''διέταξε''' τοὺς μὲν οἰκίας οἰκοδομέειν, τοὺς δὲ δορυφόρους εἶναι, τὸν δέ κου τινὰ αὐτῶν ὀφθαλμὸν βασιλέος εἶναι, τῷ δὲ τινὶ τὰς ἀγγελίας φέρειν ἐδίδου γέρας,...<br>[Cyrus] was playing in this village... in the road with others of his age. The boys while playing '''chose''' to be their king this one....  Then he '''assigned''' some of them to the building of houses, some to be his bodyguard, one doubtless to be the King's Eye; to another he gave the right of bringing him messages;....
*:{{Herodotus|el|1|114|ref}}
::Here the imperfect ἔπαιζε "was playing" is the whole process of the game (which continues past these extracts); the aorists the individual steps.<sup>[]</sup>

The narrative aorist has the same force, of an undivided or single action, when used by itself:
*ἐπεὶ δὲ εἶδον αὐτὸν οἵπερ πρόσθεν προσεκύνουν, καὶ τότε '''προσεκύνησαν''', καίπερ εἰδότες ὅτι ἐπὶ θάνατον ἄγοιτο.<br>And when the men who in former days were wont to do him homage saw him, they '''made their obeisance''' even then, although they knew that he was being led forth to death.
*:{{Anabasis|1|6|10}}
::''Were wont to do him homage'' is the imperfect, ''made their obeisance'' the aorist, of προσκύνω "kowtow".

====Complexive====
On the other hand, if the entire action is expressed, not as a continuous action, but as a single undivided event, the aorist is used:<sup>[]</sup>

Herodotus introduces his story of Cyrus playing with:
*καὶ ὅτε ἦν δεκαέτης ὁ παῖς, πρῆγμα ἐς αὑτὸν τοιόνδε γενόμενον '''ἐξέφηνέ''' μιν·<br>Now when the boy was ten years old, the truth about him '''was revealed''' in some such way as this:
*:{{Herodotus|el|1|114|ref}}

The aorist is also used when something is described as happening for some definite interval of time; this particular function can be more precisely called the '''temporal''' aorist: 
*Οὑμὸς πατὴρ Κέφαλος ἐπείσθη μὲν ὑπὸ Περικλέους εἰς ταύτην γῆν ἀφικέσθαι, ἔτη δὲ τριάκοντα '''ᾤκησε'''.<br>My father Cephalus was persuaded by Pericles to come to this land and '''lived''' (there) thirty years.
*:[[Lysias]], [[Against Eratosthenes]] 4

====Past-in-the-past====
The other chief narrative use of the aorist is to express events before the time of the story:<sup>[]</sup>
*τούς τε Ἱμεραίους ἔπεισαν ξυμπολεμεῖν καὶ αὐτούς τε ἕπεσθαι καὶ τοῖς ἐκ τῶν νεῶν τῶν σφετέρων ναύταις ὅσοι μὴ εἶχον ὅπλα παρασχεῖν (τὰς γὰρ ναῦς '''ἀνείλκυσαν''' ἐν Ἱμέρᾳ)<br>they persuaded the Himeraeans to join in the war, and not only to go with them themselves but to provide arms for the seamen from their vessels (for they '''had beached''' their ships at Himera)
*:{{Thucydides|el|7|1|3|ref}}

====Ingressive====
In verbs denoting a [[stative verb|state]] or continuing action, the aorist may express the beginning of the action or the entrance into the state. This is called ingressive aorist (also inceptive or [[inchoative aspect|inchoative]]).<sup>[]</sup>
* βασιλεύω "I am king" (present) — ἐβασίλευσα "I became king" or "I ruled" (aorist)
*:''basileúō'' — ''ebasíleusa''

====Resultative====
The resultative aorist expresses the result of an action.<sup>[]</sup> Whether this is truly distinguishable from the normal force of the narrative aorist is disputable. 
* ἐβούλευον "I was deliberating" is imperfect; ἐβούλευσα "I decided" is aorist.

====Gnomic====
The '''[[gnomic aspect|gnomic]] aorist''' expresses the way things generally happen, as in proverbs.<sup>[]</sup> The '''empiric aorist''' states a fact of experience (ἐμπειρίᾱ ''empeiríā''), and is modified by the adverbs ''often, always, sometimes, already, not yet, never'', etc.<sup>[]</sup> (English tends to express similar timeless assertions with the [[simple present (English)|simple present]].) 

The gnomic aorist is regarded as a [[sequence of tenses|primary tense]] in determining the mood of verbs in subordinate clauses.<sup>[]</sup> That is to say, subordinate clauses take the subjunctive instead of the optative.
*οἱ τύραννοι πλούσιον ὃν '''ἄν βούλωνται''' παραχρῆμ’ ἐποίησαν (not *ἄν βούλοιεν)<br>Tyrants make rich in a moment whomever '''they wish'''.
:{{Demosthenes|20|15}}

====Dramatic====
In dialogues within [[tragedy]] and [[comedy]], the [[grammatical person|first person]] [[grammatical number|singular]] aorist or present expresses an action performed by the act of speaking, like thanking someone (see [[performative utterance]]), or, according to another analysis, a state of mind.<sup>[]</sup> This is called '''tragic''' or '''dramatic aorist'''. The aorist is used when the action is complete in the single statement; the present when the speaker goes on to explain how or why he is acting.

*Ἀλλαντοπώλης.&emsp;'''ἥσθην''' ἀπειλαῖς, '''ἐγέλασα''' ψολοκομπίαις,<br>'''ἀπεπυδάρισα''' μόθωνα, '''περιεκόκκασα'''.<br>Sausage-seller.&emsp;'''I like''' your threats, '''laugh''' at your empty bluster,<br>'''dance''' a fling, and '''cry cuckoo all around'''.
:{{Knights|696|697|ref}}: translated by William James Hickie<sup>[]</sup>

===Indicative mood with particle===
====Unattainable wish====
A wish about the past that cannot be fulfilled is expressed by the aorist indicative with the [[grammatical particle|particles]] εἴθε or εἰ γάρ "if only" (''eíthe'', ''ei gár''). This is called the '''aorist of unattainable wish'''.<sup>[]</sup>
*'''εἴθε''' σοι, ὦ Περίκλεις, τότε '''συνεγενόμην'''.<br>'''If only I had been with''' you then, Pericles!
:{{Memorabilia|1|2|46|ref=y}}

An unattainable wish about the present uses the imperfect.<sup>[]</sup> A wish about the future uses the [[Optative (Ancient Greek)#Wish|optative]] with or without a particle;<sup>[]</sup>

====Past potential====
The aorist indicative (less commonly the [[imperfect]]) with the [[grammatical mood|modal]] [[grammatical particle|particle]] ἄν ''án'', [[Homeric Greek|Homeric]] κέ(ν) ''ké(n)'', may express past [[Irrealis mood#Potential|potentiality]], probability, or necessity.<sup>[]</sup>
*τίς γὰρ '''ἂν ᾠήθη''' ταῦτα γένεσθαι;<br>For who '''would have expected''' these things to happen?
:{{Demosthenes|9|68}}

====Iterative====
The aorist indicative<sup>[]</sup> (also the [[imperfect]], or [[frequentative#Greek|past iterative]] in [[Herodotus]]) with ἄν ''án'' may express repeated or customary past action. This is called the '''iterative indicative'''. It is similar to the past potential, since it denotes what could have happened at a given point, but unlike the past potential, it is a statement of fact.<sup>[]</sup>

====Unreal====
The aorist or imperfect indicative with ἄν may express past unreality or [[counterfactual conditional|counterfactuality]]. This is called the '''unreal indicative'''. This construction is used in the [[consequent|consequence]] of past counterfactual [[conditional sentence]]s.<sup>[]</sup>

===Participles===
Outside of indirect discourse, an aorist participle may express any time (past, present, or rarely future) [[relative and absolute tense|relative]] to the main verb.<sup>[]</sup>

===Non-indicative moods===
Outside of the indicative mood, sometimes the aorist determines time (often past time), and sometimes the function of the mood determines it. When the aorist does not determine time, it determines aspect instead.<sup>[]</sup>

Aorist in indirect discourse refers to past time relative to the main verb, since it replaces an aorist indicative.

An imperative, subjunctive or optative in an independent clause usually refers to future time, because the imperative express a command, the subjunctive expresses urging, prohibition, or deliberation, and the optative expresses a wish or possibility.

In [[dependent clause]]s (temporal, [[conditional sentence|conditional]], etc.), the time ([[past tense|past]], [[present tense|present]], or [[future tense|future]]) of an aorist subjunctive, optative, or imperative is based on the function of the mood.<sup>[]</sup> The subjunctive is used with main verbs in the present and future tenses ([[sequence of tenses|primary sequence]]), and the optative is used with main verbs in the past tenses (secondary sequence) and to express [[Irrealis mood#Potential|potentiality]] in the future.

===Optative mood===
====Potential====
In the [[Optative mood#Potential|potential optative]], the aorist expresses aspect, and the potential optative implies future time.<sup>[]</sup>

==See also==
*[[Aorist]]
*[[Perfective aspect]]

==References==
*Albert Rijksbaron, ''Syntax and Semantics of the Verb in Classical Greek: An Introduction'' (2002) – cited by section
*[[Herbert Weir Smyth]], [http://artflx.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/navigate.pl?NewPerseusMonographs.9 ''A Greek grammar for colleges''] (1916) – cited by page and section

==Notes==


[[Category:Grammatical tenses]]
[[Category:Grammatical aspects]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek language]]
[[Category:Greek grammar]]