Bible
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== Archaeological and historical research == | == Archaeological and historical research == | ||
| - | + | ''See [[Biblical archaeology school]]'' | |
| - | + | ''See [[The Bible and history]]'' | |
Biblical archaeology is the [[archaeology]] that relates to, and sheds light upon, the Hebrew Scriptures and the New Testament. It is used to help determine the lifestyle and practices of people living in biblical times. It is also used to help clarify the consistency between historical evidence and scripture. | Biblical archaeology is the [[archaeology]] that relates to, and sheds light upon, the Hebrew Scriptures and the New Testament. It is used to help determine the lifestyle and practices of people living in biblical times. It is also used to help clarify the consistency between historical evidence and scripture. | ||
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There are a wide range of interpretations of the existing Biblical archaeology. One broad division includes [[Biblical maximalism]] that generally take the view that most of the [[Old Testament]] or [[Hebrew Bible]] is essentially based on history although presented through the religious viewpoint of its time. It is considered the opposite of [[Biblical Minimalism]] which is strictly secular and does not allow any consideration of the Bible as documentary evidence or as a framework of history. | There are a wide range of interpretations of the existing Biblical archaeology. One broad division includes [[Biblical maximalism]] that generally take the view that most of the [[Old Testament]] or [[Hebrew Bible]] is essentially based on history although presented through the religious viewpoint of its time. It is considered the opposite of [[Biblical Minimalism]] which is strictly secular and does not allow any consideration of the Bible as documentary evidence or as a framework of history. | ||
| - | One example of the dispute involves Biblical accounts of [[Exodus#Bondage in Egypt|Israelite bondage in Egypt]], wandering in the desert, and conquest the [[Land of Israel]] in a military campaign, the accounts of the [[Land of Israel|land]] being passed on to the [[Israelites|12 tribes of Israel]], and [[King David|David]]'s and [[King Solomon|Solomon]]'s conquests, and other key elements described in the Biblical narratives as occurring in the 10th century BC or before. So far, there is a lack of archaeological evidence to independently support this, which has led some archaeologists, such as [[Israel Finkelstein]], [[Neil Silberman]],<ref> | + | One example of the dispute involves Biblical accounts of [[Exodus#Bondage in Egypt|Israelite bondage in Egypt]], wandering in the desert, and conquest the [[Land of Israel]] in a military campaign, the accounts of the [[Land of Israel|land]] being passed on to the [[Israelites|12 tribes of Israel]], and [[King David|David]]'s and [[King Solomon|Solomon]]'s conquests, and other key elements described in the Biblical narratives as occurring in the 10th century BC or before. So far, there is a lack of archaeological evidence to independently support this, which has led some archaeologists, such as [[Israel Finkelstein]], [[Neil Silberman]],<ref>cite book |
| last = Finkelstein | | last = Finkelstein | ||
| first = Israel | | first = Israel | ||
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| - | | isbn = | + | | isbn = </ref> to believe that these events never happened, and that the ancestors of the [[Hebrews]] and the [[Jews]] are either nomads who have become sedentary, or people from the plains of [[Canaan]], who fled to the highlands to escape the control of the cities. Others disagree sharply.<ref>cite web |
| url = http://www.hebrewhistory.info/factpapers/fp014_nomadic.htm | | url = http://www.hebrewhistory.info/factpapers/fp014_nomadic.htm | ||
| title = Nomadic Jews, Never | | title = Nomadic Jews, Never | ||
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| - | + | </ref> | |
Another example involves the story of [[Noah's Ark]]. [[Biblical literalism|Biblical literalists]] support a theory of a worldwide flood as described in the story and are looking for archaeological evidence in the region of the [[mountains of Ararat]] in north-east [[Turkey]] where Genesis says Noah's Ark came to rest. Mainstream scientists (and many Christians and Jews) discount a literal interpretation of the Ark story, on the basis of [[history of geology|geology]] and other sciences.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/3524676.stm Did Noah really build an ark?, BBC].</ref> | Another example involves the story of [[Noah's Ark]]. [[Biblical literalism|Biblical literalists]] support a theory of a worldwide flood as described in the story and are looking for archaeological evidence in the region of the [[mountains of Ararat]] in north-east [[Turkey]] where Genesis says Noah's Ark came to rest. Mainstream scientists (and many Christians and Jews) discount a literal interpretation of the Ark story, on the basis of [[history of geology|geology]] and other sciences.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/3524676.stm Did Noah really build an ark?, BBC].</ref> | ||
Revision as of 13:38, 7 July 2009
The Holy Bible is the central religious text of Judaism and Christianity.<ref>http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=Bible Dictionary.com</ref>
Modern Judaism generally recognizes a single set of canonical books known as the Tanakh, or Hebrew or Jewish Bible.<ref>See: McDonald and Sanders's The Canon Debate, 2002.</ref> It comprises three parts: the Torah ("Teaching", also known as the Pentateuch or "Five Books of Moses"), the Prophets, and the Writings. It was primarily written in Hebrew with some small portions in Aramaic. In Christian religions, the Tanakh is known as the Old Testament.
Christians, including Roman Catholics and Greek Orthodox, all have the same 27 books in the New Testament (originally written in Greek) and the same 39 books in the Old Testament. The only difference are the apocrypha, a collection of writings that originated during the intertestamental period (400 BC - 27 AD). The Greek Orthodox Bible contains 27 apocryphal books, while the Roman Catholic Bible contains only 23 of them.<ref>List of books in the Christian Bible, Roman Catholic Bible, Greek Orthodox Bible." http://www.bible.ca/b-canon-orthodox-catholic-christian-bible-books.htm</ref> Eastern Orthodox Churches use all of the books that were incorporated into the Septuagint, to which they add the earliest Greek translation of the Deuterocanonicals.
Contents |
Etymology
thumb|upright|An American family Bible dating to 1859 A.D. According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible<ref>Online Etymology Dictionary entry for word "Bible".</ref> is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin, as used in the phrase biblia sacra ("holy book" - "In the Latin of the Middle Ages, the neuter plural for Biblia (gen. bibliorum) gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun (biblia, gen. bibliae, in which singular form the word has passed into the languages of the Western world.").<ref>http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02543a.htm The Catholic Encyclopedia.</ref> This stemmed from the Greek term ' (ta biblia ta hagia), "the holy books", which derived from βιβλίον (biblion),<ref>Biblion, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus.</ref> "paper" or "scroll," the ordinary word for "book", which was originally a diminutive of βύβλος (byblos, "Egyptian papyrus"), possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician port Byblos from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece.
Biblical scholar Mark Hamilton states that the Greek phrase Ta biblia ("the books") was "an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books several centuries before the time of Jesus,"<ref>"From Hebrew Bible to Christian Bible" by Mark Hamilton on PBS's site From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians.</ref> and would have referred to the Septuagint.<ref>Dictionary.com etymology of the word "Bible".</ref> The Online Etymology Dictionary states, "The Christian scripture was referred to in Greek as Ta Biblia as early as c.223."
Jewish canon
See Judaism See Tanakh The Tanakh (Hebrew: Template:Hebrew) consists of 24 books. Tanakh is an acronym for the three parts of the Hebrew Bible: the Torah ("Teaching/Law" also known as the Pentateuch), Nevi'im ("Prophets"), and Ketuvim ("Writings," or Hagiographa), and is used commonly by Jews but unfamiliar to many English speakers and others Template:Ref harvard. (See Table of books of Judeo-Christian Scripture).
Torah
See Torah The Torah, or "Instruction," is also known as the "Five Books" of Moses, thus Chumash from Hebrew meaning "fivesome," and Pentateuch from Greek meaning "five scroll-cases."
The Torah comprises the following five books:
- 1. Genesis, Ge—Bereshit (בראשית)
- 2. Exodus, Ex—Shemot (שמות)
- 3. Leviticus, Le—Vayikra (ויקרא)
- 4. Numbers, Nu—Bamidbar (במדבר)
- 5. Deuteronomy, Dt—Devarim (דברים)
The Hebrew book titles come from the first words in the respective texts. The Hebrew title for Numbers, however, comes from the fifth word of that text.
The Torah focuses on three moments in the changing relationship between God and people. The first eleven chapters of Genesis provide accounts of the creation (or ordering) of the world, and the history of God's early relationship with humanity. The remaining thirty-nine chapters of Genesis provide an account of God's covenant with the Hebrew patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (also called Israel), and Jacob's children (the "Children of Israel"), especially Joseph. It tells of how God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home in the city of Ur, eventually to settle in the land of Canaan, and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt. The remaining four books of the Torah tell the story of Moses, who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs. His story coincides with the story of the liberation of the Children of Israel from slavery in Ancient Egypt, to the renewal of their covenant with God at Mount Sinai, and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation would be ready to enter the land of Canaan. The Torah ends with the death of Moses.
The Torah contains the commandments, of God, revealed at Mount Sinai (although there is some debate amongst Jewish scholars, if this was written down completely in one moment, or if it was spread out during the 40 years in the wandering in the desert). These commandments provide the basis for Halakha (Jewish religious law). Tradition states that the number of these is equal to 613 Mitzvot or 613 commandments. There is some dispute as to how to divide these up (mainly between the Ramban and Rambam).
The Torah is divided into fifty-four portions which are read in turn in Jewish liturgy, from the beginning of Genesis to the end of Deuteronomy, each Sabbath. The cycle ends and recommences at the end of Sukkot, which is called Simchat Torah.
Nevi'im
See Nevi'im The Nevi'im, or "Prophets," tell the story of the rise of the Hebrew monarchy, its division into two kingdoms, and the prophets who, in God's name, warned the kings and the Children of Israel about the punishment of God. It ends with the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians and the conquest of the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians, and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. Portions of the prophetic books are read by Jews on the Sabbath (Shabbat). The Book of Jonah is read on Yom Kippur.
According to Jewish tradition, Nevi'im is divided into eight books. Contemporary translations subdivide these into seventeen books.
The Nevi'im comprise the following eight books:
- 6. Joshua, Js—Yehoshua (יהושע)
- 7. Judges, Jg—Shoftim (שופטים)
- 8. Samuel, includes First and Second, 1Sa–2Sa—Shemuel (שמואל)
- 9. Kings, includes First and Second, 1Ki–2Ki—Melakhim (מלכים)
- 10. Isaiah, Is—Yeshayahu (ישעיהו)
- 11. Jeremiah, Je—Yirmiyahu (ירמיהו)
- 12. Ezekiel, Ez—Yekhezkel (יחזקאל)
- 13. Twelve, includes all Minor Prophets—Tre Asar (תרי עשר)
- a. Hosea, Ho—Hoshea (הושע)
- b. Joel, Jl—Yoel (יואל)
- c. Amos, Am—Amos (עמוס)
- d. Obadiah, Ob—Ovadyah (עבדיה)
- e. Jonah, Jh—Yonah (יונה)
- f. Micah, Mi—Mikhah (מיכה)
- g. Nahum, Na—Nahum (נחום)
- h. Habakkuk, Hb—Havakuk (חבקוק)
- i. Zephaniah, Zp—Tsefanya (צפניה)
- j. Haggai, Hg—Khagay (חגי)
- k. Zechariah, Zc—Zekharyah (זכריה)
- l. Malachi, Ml—Malakhi (מלאכי)
Ketuvim
See [[Ketuvim}]] The Ketuvim, or "Writings" or "Scriptures," may have been written during or after the Babylonian Exile but no one can be sure. According to Rabbinic tradition, many of the psalms in the book of Psalms are attributed to David; King Solomon is believed to have written Song of Songs in his youth, Proverbs at the prime of his life, and Ecclesiastes at old age; and the prophet Jeremiah is thought to have written Lamentations. The Book of Ruth is the only biblical book that centers entirely on a non-Jew. The book of Ruth tells the story of a non-Jew (specifically, a Moabite) who married a Jew and, upon his death, followed in the ways of the Jews; according to the Bible, she was the great-grandmother of King David. Five of the books, called "The Five Scrolls" (Megilot), are read on Jewish holidays: Song of Songs on Passover; the Book of Ruth on Shavuot; Lamentations on the Ninth of Av; Ecclesiastes on Sukkot; and the Book of Esther on Purim. Collectively, the Ketuvim contain lyrical poetry, philosophical reflections on life, and the stories of the prophets and other Jewish leaders during the Babylonian exile. It ends with the Persian decree allowing Jews to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple.
The Ketuvim comprise the following eleven books:
- 14. Psalms, Ps—Tehillim (תהלים)
- 15. Proverbs, Pr—Mishlei (משלי)
- 16. Job, Jb—Iyyov (איוב)
- 17. Song of Songs, So—Shir ha-Shirim (שיר השירים)
- 18. Ruth, Ru—Rut (רות)
- 19. Lamentations, La—Eikhah (איכה), also called Kinot (קינות)
- 20. Ecclesiastes, Ec—Kohelet (קהלת)
- 21. Esther, Es—Ester (אסתר)
- 22. Daniel, Dn—Daniel (דניאל)
- 23. Ezra, Ea, includes Nehemiah, Ne—Ezra (עזרא), includes Nehemiah (נחמיה)
- 24. Chronicles, includes First and Second, 1Ch–2Ch—Divrei ha-Yamim (דברי הימים), also called Divrei (דברי)
Hebrew Bible translations and editions
The Tanakh was mainly written in Biblical Hebrew, with some portions (notably in Daniel and Ezra) in Biblical Aramaic.<ref>cite web |url=http://www.csbbc.net/bible.html |title=Bible Study, Bible Facts |accessdate=2007-11-05 |format=HTML |work= </ref>
The Oral Torah
According to some Jews during the Hellenistic period, such as the Sadducees only a minimal oral tradition of interpreting the words of the Torah existed, which did not extend into extended biblical interpretation. According to the Pharisees, however, God revealed both a Written Torah and an Oral Torah to Moses, the Oral Torah consisting of both stories and legal traditions. In Rabbinic Judaism, the Oral Torah is essential for understanding the Written Torah literally (as it includes neither vowels nor punctuation) and exegetically. The Oral Torah has different facets, principally Halacha (laws), the Aggadah (stories), and the Kabbalah (esoteric knowledge). Major portions of the Oral Law have been committed to writing, notably the Mishnah; the Tosefta; Midrash, such as Midrash Rabbah, the Sifre, the Sifra, and the Mechilta; and both the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds as well.
Orthodox Judaism continues to accept the Oral Torah in its totality. Masorti and Conservative Judaism state that the Oral Tradition is to some degree divinely inspired, but disregard its legal elements in varying degrees. Reform Judaism also gives some credence to the Talmud containing the legal elements of the Oral Torah, but, as with the written Torah, asserts that both were inspired by, but not dictated by, God. Reconstructionist Judaism denies any connection of the Torah, Written or Oral, with God.
The article Jewish commentaries on the Bible discusses the Jewish understanding of the Bible, including bible commentaries from the ancient Targums to classical Rabbinic literature, the midrash literature, the classical medieval commentators, and modern day Jewish bible commentaries.
Christian canons of the Bible
The Christian Bible consists of the Hebrew scriptures, which have been called the Old Testament, and some later writings known as the New Testament. Some groups within Christianity include additional books as part of one or both of these "Testaments" of their sacred writings—most prominent among which are the biblical apocrypha or deuterocanonical books.
Different versions of the English Christian Bible include the KJV, the NKJV, the NIV, and the TNIV. To see a complete list, see List of English Bible translations.
In Judaism, the term Christian Bible is commonly used to identify only those books like the New Testament which have been added by Christians to the Masoretic Text, and excludes any reference to an Old Testament.<ref>Accuracy of Torah Text.</ref>
Old Testament
See Old Testament The Old Testament is the collection of books written prior to the life of Jesus but accepted by Christians as scripture. Broadly speaking, it is the same as the Hebrew Bible, however it divides and orders them differently, and varies from Judaism in interpretation and emphasis (see for example Isaiah 7:14). Several Christian denominations also incorporate additional books into their canons of the Old Testament. A few groups consider particular translations to be divinely inspired, notably the Greek Septuagint, the Aramaic Peshitta, and the English King James Version.
Apocryphal or deuterocanonical books
The Septuagint (Greek translation, from Alexandria in Egypt under the Ptolemies) was generally abandoned in favour of the Masoretic text as the basis for translations of the Old Testament into Western languages from St. Jerome's Bible (the Vulgate) to the present day. In Eastern Christianity, translations based on the Septuagint still prevail. Some modern Western translations make use of the Septuagint to clarify passages in the Masoretic text, where the Septuagint may preserve a variant reading of the Hebrew text. They also sometimes adopt variants that appear in other texts e.g. those discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.
A number of books which are part of the Peshitta or Greek Septuagint but are not found in the Hebrew (Rabbinic) Bible are often referred to as deuterocanonical books by Roman Catholics referring to a later secondary (i.e. deutero) canon. Most Protestants term these books as apocrypha. Evangelicals and those of the Modern Protestant traditions do not accept the deuterocanonical books as canonical, although Protestant Bibles included them in Apocrypha sections until around the 1820s. However, the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox Churches include these books as part of their Old Testament.
The Roman Catholic Church recognizes the following books:
- Tobit
- Judith
- 1 Maccabees
- 2 Maccabees
- Wisdom of Solomon
- Sirach also called Ecclesiasticus
- Baruch
- Greek Additions to Esther
- Greek Additions to Daniel
In addition to those, the Greek and Russian Orthodox Churches recognize the following:
- 3 Maccabees
- 1 Esdras i.e. Greek Ezra paraphrase
- Prayer of Manasseh
- Psalm 151 as part of the Psalter
Some other Eastern Orthodox Churches include a few others, typically:
The Syriac Orthodox Church also has:
- The Apocalypse of Baruch 2 Baruch
- The Letter of Baruch
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church also has some others such as:
The Anglican Church uses some of the Apocryphal books liturgically, but not to establish doctrine. Therefore, editions of the Bible intended for use in the Anglican Church include the Deuterocanonical books accepted by the Catholic Church, plus 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh, which were in the Vulgate appendix.
There is also 4 Maccabees which is only accepted as canonical in the Georgian Church, but was included by St. Jerome in an appendix to the Vulgate, and is an appendix to the Greek Orthodox Bible, and it therefore sometimes included in collections of the Apocrypha.
New Testament
See New Testament The Bible as used by the majority of Christians includes the Rabbinic Hebrew Scripture and the New Testament, which relates the life and teachings of Jesus, the letters of the Apostle Paul and other disciples to the early church and the Book of Revelation.
The New Testament is a collection of 27 books, of 4 different genres of Christian literature (Gospels, one account of the Acts of the Apostles, Epistles and an Apocalypse). Jesus is its central figure. The New Testament was written primarily in Koine Greek in the early Christian period, though a minority argue for Aramaic primacy. Nearly all Christians recognize the New Testament (as stated below) as canonical scripture. These books can be grouped into:
- Synoptic Gospels
- Gospel According to John, Jn
- Acts of the Apostles, Ac (continues Luke)
- Second Epistle to the Corinthians, 2Co
- Epistle to the Galatians, Ga
- Epistle to the Ephesians, Ep
- Epistle to the Philippians, Pp
- Epistle to the Colossians, Cl
- First Epistle to the Thessalonians, 1Th
- Second Epistle to the Thessalonians, 2Th
- Pastoral Epistles
General Epistles, also called Jewish Epistles
- Epistle of James, Jm
- First Epistle of Peter, 1Pe
- Second Epistle of Peter, 2Pe
- First Epistle of John, 1Jn
- Second Epistle of John, 2Jn
- Third Epistle of John, 3Jn
- Epistle of Jude, Jd
- Revelation, or the Apocalypse Re
The order of these books varies according to Church tradition. The New Testament books are ordered differently in the Catholic/Protestant tradition, the Lutheran tradition, the Slavonic tradition, the Syriac tradition and the Ethiopian tradition.
Original language
The books of the New Testament were written in Koine Greek, the language of the earliest extant manuscripts, even though some authors often included translations from Hebrew and Aramaic texts. Certainly the Pauline Epistles were written in Greek for Greek-speaking audiences. See Greek primacy. Some scholars believe that some books of the Greek New Testament (in particular, the Gospel of Matthew) are actually translations of a Hebrew or Aramaic original. Of these, a small number accept the Syriac Peshitta as representative of the original. See Aramaic primacy.
Historic editions
See Biblical manuscript Bible translations Textual criticism
[[File:Devil codex Gigas.jpg|thumb|left|The Codex Gigas from the 13th century, held at the Royal Library in Sweden.]] When ancient scribes copied earlier books, they wrote notes on the margins of the page (marginal glosses) to correct their text—especially if a scribe accidentally omitted a word or line—and to comment about the text. When later scribes were copying the copy, they were sometimes uncertain if a note was intended to be included as part of the text. See textual criticism. Over time, different regions evolved different versions, each with its own assemblage of omissions and additions.
The autographs, the Greek manuscripts written by the original authors, have not survived. Scholars surmise the original Greek text from the versions that do survive. The three main textual traditions of the Greek New Testament are sometimes called the Alexandrian text-type (generally minimalist), the Byzantine text-type (generally maximalist), and the Western text-type (occasionally wild). Together they comprise most of the ancient manuscripts.
Christian theology
See Christian theology While individual books within the Christian Bible present narratives set in certain historical periods, most Christian denominations teach that the Bible itself has an overarching message.
There are among Christians wide differences of opinion as to how particular incidents as described in the Bible are to be interpreted and as to what meaning should be attached to various prophecies. However, Christians in general are in agreement as to the Bible's basic message. A general outline, as described by C. S. Lewis, is as follows:<ref name= "cslewis">A Summary of the Bible by Lewis, CS: Believer's Web.</ref>
- At some point in the past, humanity chose to depart from God's will and began to sin.
- Because no one is free from sin, people cannot deal with God directly, so God revealed Himself in ways people could understand.
- God called Abraham and his progeny to be the means for saving all of humanity.
- To this end, He gave the Law to Moses.
- The resulting nation of Israel went through cycles of sin and repentance, yet the prophets show an increasing understanding of the Law as a moral, not just a ceremonial, force.
- Jesus brought a perfect understanding of the Mosaic Law, that of love and salvation.
- By His death and resurrection, all who believe are saved and reconciled to God.
Many Christians, Muslims, and Jews regard the Bible as inspired by God yet written by a variety of imperfect men over thousands of years. Many others, who identify themselves as Bible-believing Christians, regard both the New and Old Testament as the undiluted Word of God, spoken by God and written down in its perfect form by humans. Still others hold the Biblical infallibility perspective, that the Bible is free from error in spiritual but not scientific matters.
Belief in sacred texts is attested to in Jewish antiquity,<ref>Philo of Alexandria, De vita Moysis 3.23.</ref><ref name = "Josephus">Josephus, Contra Apion 1.8.</ref> and this belief can also be seen in the earliest of Christian writings. Various texts of the Bible mention Divine agency in relation to prophetic writings,<ref name="Original Source"> cite book |url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Sam%2023:2,2%20Tim%203:16,Luke%201:70,Heb%203:7,10:15-16,1%20Peter%201:11,Mark%2012:36,2%20Peter%201:20-21,Acts%201:16,Acts%203:18,Acts%2028:25;&version=50; |publisher=Biblegateway |title="Basis for belief of Inspiration" </ref> the most explicit being 2 Timothy 3:16 ESV: "All scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness."
In their book A General Introduction to the Bible, Norman Geisler and William Nix wrote: "The process of inspiration is a mystery of the providence of God, but the result of this process is a verbal, plenary, inerrant, and authoritative record."<ref> cite book |author=Norman L. Geisler, William E. Nix |title=A General Introduction to the Bible |page=86 |year=1986 |publisher=Moody Publishers |isbn=0-8024-2916-5
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}}{{#if:pdf</ref> However, some adherents to the King James Only view attribute inerrancy to a particular translation.
Canonization
See Biblical Canon The word "canon" etymologically means cane or reed. In early Christianity "canon" referred to a list of books approved for public reading. Books not on the list were referred to as "apocryphal" — meaning they were for private reading only. Under Latin usage from the fourth century on, canon came to stand for a closed and authoritative list in the sense of rule or norm.<ref name="Stagg">Stagg, Frank. New Testament Theology. Nashville: Broadman, 1962. ISBN 0-8054-1613-7.</ref>
Hebrew Bible
See Development of the Jewish Bible canon The New Testament refers to the threefold division of the Hebrew Scriptures: the law, the prophets, and the writings. bibleverse
| (pdf</ref> However, some adherents to the King James Only view attribute inerrancy to a particular translation.
Canonization
See Biblical Canon The word "canon" etymologically means cane or reed. In early Christianity "canon" referred to a list of books approved for public reading. Books not on the list were referred to as "apocryphal" — meaning they were for private reading only. Under Latin usage from the fourth century on, canon came to stand for a closed and authoritative list in the sense of rule or norm.<ref name="Stagg">Stagg, Frank. New Testament Theology. Nashville: Broadman, 1962. ISBN 0-8054-1613-7.</ref>
Hebrew Bible
See Development of the Jewish Bible canon The New Testament refers to the threefold division of the Hebrew Scriptures: the law, the prophets, and the writings. bibleverse)
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| last = Dever | first = William | authorlink = William Dever | title = Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come from? | publisher = | series = | year = | doi = | isbn = </ref> to believe that these events never happened, and that the ancestors of the Hebrews and the Jews are either nomads who have become sedentary, or people from the plains of Canaan, who fled to the highlands to escape the control of the cities. Others disagree sharply.<ref>cite web
| url = http://www.hebrewhistory.info/factpapers/fp014_nomadic.htm | title = Nomadic Jews, Never | accessdate = | accessmonthday = | accessyear = | author = | last = Kurinsky | first = Samuel | authorlink = | coauthors = | date = | year = 2008 | month = August | work = | publisher = Hebrew History Foundation | pages = | format = | language = | quote = | archiveurl = | archivedate = </ref>
Another example involves the story of Noah's Ark. Biblical literalists support a theory of a worldwide flood as described in the story and are looking for archaeological evidence in the region of the mountains of Ararat in north-east Turkey where Genesis says Noah's Ark came to rest. Mainstream scientists (and many Christians and Jews) discount a literal interpretation of the Ark story, on the basis of geology and other sciences.<ref>Did Noah really build an ark?, BBC.</ref>
According to recent theories, linguistic as well as archaeological, the global structure of the texts in the Hebrew Bible were compiled during the reign of King Josiah in the 7th century BC. Even though the components are derived from more ancient writings, the final form of the books is believed to have been set somewhere between the 1st century BC and the 4th century AD.
See also
Template:Col-begin Template:Col-break
Biblical scholarship and analysis
- Dating the Bible
- Textual criticism
- Historical criticism
- Documentary hypothesis
- Synoptic problem
- Biblical manuscripts
- Internal consistency and the Bible
- Mosaic authorship
- Authorship of the Johannine works
- Authorship of the Pauline epistles
- Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible
- Apocrypha
- Dead sea scrolls
- Nag hammadi library
- Biblical archaeology
Template:Col-break Template:Bibleportal Template:Sisterlinks
Perspectives on the Bible
- Bibliolatry
- Calvin's view of Scripture
- Jewish Biblical exegesis
- Islamic view of the Bible
- Biblical narratives and the Qur'an
- Criticism of the Bible
- Gnosticism and the New Testament
- Good news (Christianity), concerning the content of the Bible's message about Jesus
- Christianity and Judaism
- Biblical law in Christianity
- Bible prophecy
- Biblical inerrancy
- New Testament view on Jesus' life
- Ten Commandments
- Parsha
- Ritual Decalogue
- Jewish messianism
- Summary of Christian eschatological differences
- Bibliomancy is the use of random readings from a book for divination. When practiced in Jewish and Christian cultures, the Bible is often used.
- Bible conspiracy theory
- Bible code
- The Skeptic's Annotated Bible
Template:Col-begin Template:Col-break
Interpretation
History and the Bible
- The Bible and history
- Bible chronology
- Hebrew Bible: Timeline
- History of the English Bible
- Code of Hammurabi
- Study Bible
- List of burial places of biblical figures
- List of artifacts significant to the Bible
Biblical topics
Template:Col-begin Template:Col-break
Bible societies
- See Bible society for a list.
Commentaries
See Biblical exegesis.
Religious texts
Notes
References and further reading
- Anderson, Bernhard W. Understanding the Old Testament. ISBN 0-13-948399-3.
- Berlin, Adele, Marc Zvi Brettler and Michael Fishbane. The Jewish Study Bible. Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-529751-2.
- Asimov, Isaac. Asimov's Guide to the Bible. New York, NY: Avenel Books, 1981. ISBN 0-517-34582-X.
- Template:Harvard reference
- Dever, William G. Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did they Come from? Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003. ISBN 0-8028-0975-8.
- Ehrman, Bart D. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why New York, NY: HarperSanFrancisco, 2005. ISBN 0-06-073817-0.
- Template:Harvard reference.
- Template:Harvard reference
- Geisler, Norman (editor). Inerrancy. Sponsored by the International Council on Biblical Inerrancy. Zondervan Publishing House, 1980, ISBN 0-310-39281-0.
- Head, Tom. The Absolute Beginner's Guide to the Bible. Indianapolis, IN: Que Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0-7897-3419-2
- Template:Harvard reference
- Hoffman, Joel M. In the Beginning. New York University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8147-3690-4
- Lindsell, Harold. The Battle for the Bible. Zondervan Publishing House, 1978. ISBN 0-310-27681-0
- Lienhard, Joseph T. The Bible, The Church, and Authority. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1995.
- Masalha, Nur, The Bible and Zionism: Invented Traditions, Archaeology and Post-Colonialism in Palestine-Israel. London, Zed Books, 2007.
- Miller, John W. The Origins of the Bible: Rethinking Canon History Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1994. ISBN 0-8091-3522-1.
- McDonald, Lee M. and Sanders, James A., eds. The Canon Debate. Hendrickson Publishers (January 1, 2002). 662p. ISBN 1565635175 ISBN 978-1565635173
- Riches, John. The Bible: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-19-285343-0
- Siku. The Manga Bible: From Genesis to Revelation. Galilee Trade (January 15, 2008). 224p. ISBN 0385524315 ISBN 978-0385524315
- Taylor, Hawley O. "Mathematics and Prophecy." Modern Science and Christian Faith. Wheaton: Van Kampen, 1948, pp. 175–83.
- The Brick Testament http://www.thebricktestament.com/
- Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, s.vv. "Book of Ezekiel," p. 580 and "prophecy," p. 1410. Chicago: Moody Bible Press, 1986.
