German language - Revision history

KJV: /* See also */

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KJV: /* Word order */ removed German language template

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Word order: removed German language template

KJV: /* Overseas */

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Overseas

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	===Overseas===		===Overseas===

	''See Also [[German diaspora}]]''		''See Also [[German diaspora]]''

	[[image:NamibiaDeutscheSprache.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Examples of German language in [[Namibia]]n everyday life]]		[[image:NamibiaDeutscheSprache.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Examples of German language in [[Namibia]]n everyday life]]

KJV: /* Past */

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Past

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	===Past===		===Past===
	{{See\|2nd Orthographic Conference (German)\|Antiqua-Fraktur dispute\|German orthography reform of 1944\|German orthography reform of 1996}}		See [[ 2nd Orthographic Conference (German)\|Antiqua-Fraktur dispute\|German orthography reform of 1944\|German orthography reform of 1996]]
	Until the early 20th century, German was mostly printed in [[blackletter]] [[typefaces]] (mostly in [[fraktur (typeface)\|Fraktur]], but also in [[Schwabacher]]) and written in corresponding [[Penmanship\|handwriting]] (for example [[Kurrent]] and [[Sütterlin]]). These variants of the Latin alphabet are very different from the serif or [[Sans-serif\|sans serif]] [[Antiqua (typeface class)\|Antiqua]] typefaces used today, and particularly the handwritten forms are difficult for the untrained to read. The printed forms however were claimed by some to be actually more readable when used for printing [[Germanic language]]s.<ref>Adolf Reinecke, ''Die deutsche Buchstabenschrift: ihre Entstehung und Entwicklung, ihre Zweckmäßigkeit und völkische Bedeutung'', Leipzig, Hasert, 1910</ref> The [[Nazis]] initially promoted Fraktur and Schwabacher since they were considered [[Aryan]], although they later abolished them in 1941 by claiming that these letters were Jewish. The Fraktur script remains present in everyday life through road signs, pub signs, beer brands and other forms of advertisement, where it is used to convey a certain rusticality and oldness.		Until the early 20th century, German was mostly printed in [[blackletter]] [[typefaces]] (mostly in [[fraktur (typeface)\|Fraktur]], but also in [[Schwabacher]]) and written in corresponding [[Penmanship\|handwriting]] (for example [[Kurrent]] and [[Sütterlin]]). These variants of the Latin alphabet are very different from the serif or [[Sans-serif\|sans serif]] [[Antiqua (typeface class)\|Antiqua]] typefaces used today, and particularly the handwritten forms are difficult for the untrained to read. The printed forms however were claimed by some to be actually more readable when used for printing [[Germanic language]]s.<ref>Adolf Reinecke, ''Die deutsche Buchstabenschrift: ihre Entstehung und Entwicklung, ihre Zweckmäßigkeit und völkische Bedeutung'', Leipzig, Hasert, 1910</ref> The [[Nazis]] initially promoted Fraktur and Schwabacher since they were considered [[Aryan]], although they later abolished them in 1941 by claiming that these letters were Jewish. The Fraktur script remains present in everyday life through road signs, pub signs, beer brands and other forms of advertisement, where it is used to convey a certain rusticality and oldness.

KJV: /* Consonant shifts */

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Consonant shifts

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	====Consonant shifts====		====Consonant shifts====
	~~{{details\|~~High German consonant shift}}		High German consonant shift

	German does not have any [[dental fricative]]s (as English '''th'''). The '''th''' sounds, which the English language still has, survived on the continent up to Old High German and then disappeared in German with the consonant shifts between the 8th and the 10th centuries.<sup>[]</sup> It is sometimes possible to find parallels between English and German by replacing the English '''th''' with '''d''' in German: "Thank" → in German "Dank", "this" and "that" → "dies" and "das", "[[thou]]" (old 2nd person singular pronoun) → "du", "think" → "denken", "thirsty" → "durstig" and many other examples.		German does not have any [[dental fricative]]s (as English '''th'''). The '''th''' sounds, which the English language still has, survived on the continent up to Old High German and then disappeared in German with the consonant shifts between the 8th and the 10th centuries.<sup>[]</sup> It is sometimes possible to find parallels between English and German by replacing the English '''th''' with '''d''' in German: "Thank" → in German "Dank", "this" and "that" → "dies" and "das", "[[thou]]" (old 2nd person singular pronoun) → "du", "think" → "denken", "thirsty" → "durstig" and many other examples.

KJV: removed Template:Main

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removed Template:Main

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	==Dialects==		==Dialects==
	~~{{Main\|~~German dialects}}		[[German dialects]]
	German is a member of the [[West Germanic language\|western branch]] of the [[Germanic languages\|Germanic]] [[language family\|family of languages]], which in turn is part of the [[Indo-European language family]]. The German dialect continuum is traditionally divided most broadly into [[High German languages\|High German]] and Low German.		German is a member of the [[West Germanic language\|western branch]] of the [[Germanic languages\|Germanic]] [[language family\|family of languages]], which in turn is part of the [[Indo-European language family]]. The German dialect continuum is traditionally divided most broadly into [[High German languages\|High German]] and Low German.

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	===Low German===		===Low German===
	~~{{Main\|~~Low German}}		[[Low German]]

	[[Middle Low German]] was the [[lingua franca]] of the [[Hanseatic League]]. It was the predominant language in Northern Germany. This changed in the 16th century, when in 1534 the [[Luther Bible]] by Martin Luther was printed. This translation is considered to be an important step towards the evolution of the [[Early New High German]]. It aimed to be understandable to a broad audience and was based mainly on [[Central German\|Central]] and [[Upper German]] varieties. The Early New High German language gained more prestige than [[Low Saxon German\|Low Saxon]] and became the language of science and literature. Other factors were that around the same time, the Hanseatic league lost its importance as new trade routes to [[Asia]] and the [[Americas]] were established, and that the most powerful German states of that period were located in Middle and Southern Germany.		[[Middle Low German]] was the [[lingua franca]] of the [[Hanseatic League]]. It was the predominant language in Northern Germany. This changed in the 16th century, when in 1534 the [[Luther Bible]] by Martin Luther was printed. This translation is considered to be an important step towards the evolution of the [[Early New High German]]. It aimed to be understandable to a broad audience and was based mainly on [[Central German\|Central]] and [[Upper German]] varieties. The Early New High German language gained more prestige than [[Low Saxon German\|Low Saxon]] and became the language of science and literature. Other factors were that around the same time, the Hanseatic league lost its importance as new trade routes to [[Asia]] and the [[Americas]] were established, and that the most powerful German states of that period were located in Middle and Southern Germany.
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	===High German===		===High German===
	~~{{Main\|~~High German languages}}		[[High German languages]]

	High German is divided into [[Central German]] and [[Upper German language\|Upper German]]. Central German dialects include [[Ripuarian language\|Ripuarian]], [[Moselle Franconian]], [[Rhine Franconian]], [[Central Hessian]], [[East Hessian]], [[North Hessian]], [[Thuringian]], [[Silesian German]], [[High Franconian]], [[Lorraine Franconian]], [[Alemannic German\|Mittelalemannisch]], [[North Upper Saxon]], [[High Prussian]], [[Lausitzisch-Neumärkisch]] and [[Upper Saxon dialect\|Upper Saxon]]. It is spoken in the southeastern Netherlands, eastern Belgium, Luxembourg, parts of France, and parts of Germany approximately between the River [[Main]] and the southern edge of the Lowlands. Modern Standard German is mostly based on Central German, but it should be noted that the common (but not linguistically correct) German term for modern Standard German is ''Hochdeutsch'', that is, ''High German''.		High German is divided into [[Central German]] and [[Upper German language\|Upper German]]. Central German dialects include [[Ripuarian language\|Ripuarian]], [[Moselle Franconian]], [[Rhine Franconian]], [[Central Hessian]], [[East Hessian]], [[North Hessian]], [[Thuringian]], [[Silesian German]], [[High Franconian]], [[Lorraine Franconian]], [[Alemannic German\|Mittelalemannisch]], [[North Upper Saxon]], [[High Prussian]], [[Lausitzisch-Neumärkisch]] and [[Upper Saxon dialect\|Upper Saxon]]. It is spoken in the southeastern Netherlands, eastern Belgium, Luxembourg, parts of France, and parts of Germany approximately between the River [[Main]] and the southern edge of the Lowlands. Modern Standard German is mostly based on Central German, but it should be noted that the common (but not linguistically correct) German term for modern Standard German is ''Hochdeutsch'', that is, ''High German''.
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	==Grammar==		==Grammar==
	~~{{Main\|~~German grammar}}		[[German grammar]]
	{{German grammar}}		{{German grammar}}
	German is an [[Fusional language\|inflected language]] with three [[grammatical gender]]s; as such, there can be a large number of words derived from the same root, albeit, there are other languages that are much more inflected.		German is an [[Fusional language\|inflected language]] with three [[grammatical gender]]s; as such, there can be a large number of words derived from the same root, albeit, there are other languages that are much more inflected.
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	==Orthography==		==Orthography==
	~~{{Main\|~~German orthography\|German alphabet}}		[[German orthography\|German alphabet]]
	German is written in the Latin alphabet. In addition to the 26 standard letters, German has three vowels with [[Umlaut (diacritic)\|Umlaut]], namely ''ä'', ''ö'' and ''ü'', as well as the Eszett or ''[[scharfes s]]'' (sharp s), ''[[ß]]''.		German is written in the Latin alphabet. In addition to the 26 standard letters, German has three vowels with [[Umlaut (diacritic)\|Umlaut]], namely ''ä'', ''ö'' and ''ü'', as well as the Eszett or ''[[scharfes s]]'' (sharp s), ''[[ß]]''.

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	==Phonology==		==Phonology==
	~~{{Main\|~~German phonology}}		[[German phonology]]

	===Vowels===		===Vowels===

Beza 1598 at 08:49, 8 March 2016

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	[[Category:Languages of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol]]		[[Category:Languages of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol]]
	[[Category:Stress-timed languages]]		[[Category:Stress-timed languages]]

			{{Donate}}

Nick: /* Notes */

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Notes

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 ==References==
 ===Notes===
 ===General references===

Nick: /* Standard German */

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Standard German

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	==Standard German==		==Standard German==
	~~{{Main\|~~Standard German}}
			''See Also [[Standard German]]''

	[[File:German standard varieties.png\|thumb\|350px\|The national and regional standard varieties of the Geman language.<ref>Ulrich Ammon, Hans Bickel, Jakob Ebner, et al.: Variantenwörterbuch des Deutschen. Die Standardsprache in Österreich, der Schweiz und Deutschland sowie in Liechtenstein, Luxemburg, Ostbelgien und Südtirol. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2004.</ref>]]		[[File:German standard varieties.png\|thumb\|350px\|The national and regional standard varieties of the Geman language.<ref>Ulrich Ammon, Hans Bickel, Jakob Ebner, et al.: Variantenwörterbuch des Deutschen. Die Standardsprache in Österreich, der Schweiz und Deutschland sowie in Liechtenstein, Luxemburg, Ostbelgien und Südtirol. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2004.</ref>]]
	Standard German originated not as a traditional dialect of a specific region, but as a [[written language]]. However, there are places where the traditional regional dialects have been replaced by standard German; this is the case in vast stretches of [[Northern Germany]], but also in major cities in other parts of the country.		Standard German originated not as a traditional dialect of a specific region, but as a [[written language]]. However, there are places where the traditional regional dialects have been replaced by standard German; this is the case in vast stretches of [[Northern Germany]], but also in major cities in other parts of the country.
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	===German as a foreign language===		===German as a foreign language===
	~~{{Main\|~~German as a foreign language}}
			''See Also [[German as a foreign language]]''

	[[File:Knowledge of German EU map.svg\|left\|thumb\|290px\|Knowledge of the German language in [[Europe]].]]		[[File:Knowledge of German EU map.svg\|left\|thumb\|290px\|Knowledge of the German language in [[Europe]].]]
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	[[File:Continental West Germanic languages.png\|250px\|right\|thumb\|Distribution of the native speakers of major continental West-Germanic dialectal varieties.{{Citation needed\|date=November 2009}}]]		[[File:Continental West Germanic languages.png\|250px\|right\|thumb\|Distribution of the native speakers of major continental West-Germanic dialectal varieties.{{Citation needed\|date=November 2009}}]]

	German is the third-most taught [[foreign language]] in the English-speaking world, after French and Spanish ~~{{Citation needed\|date=August 2010}}~~.		German is the third-most taught [[foreign language]] in the English-speaking world, after French and Spanish.

	German is the main language of about 90–95 million people in Europe (as of 2004), or 13.3% of all Europeans, being the second most spoken native language in Europe after [[Russian language\|Russian]], above French (66.5 million speakers in 2004) and English (64.2 million speakers in 2004). It is therefore the most spoken first language in the EU. It is the second most known foreign language in the EU.<ref>After English; {{cite web\|url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_237.en.pdf\|title=Europeans and Language\|publisher=[[European Commission]]\|format=PDF\|year=2005\|accessdate=2007-12-08}}</ref> It is one of the official languages of the European Union, and one of the three [[working language]]s of [[European Commission\|the European Commission]], along with English and French. Thirty-two percent of citizens of the EU-15 countries say they can converse in German (either as a mother tongue or as a second or foreign language).<ref>{{cite web\|url= http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/lang/languages/index_en.html\|title=Languages in Europe\|publisher=[[European Commission]]\|year=2007\|accessdate=2008-02-12}}</ref> This is assisted by the widespread availability of German TV by cable or satellite.		German is the main language of about 90–95 million people in Europe (as of 2004), or 13.3% of all Europeans, being the second most spoken native language in Europe after [[Russian language\|Russian]], above French (66.5 million speakers in 2004) and English (64.2 million speakers in 2004). It is therefore the most spoken first language in the EU. It is the second most known foreign language in the EU.<ref>After English; {{cite web\|url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_237.en.pdf\|title=Europeans and Language\|publisher=[[European Commission]]\|format=PDF\|year=2005\|accessdate=2007-12-08}}</ref> It is one of the official languages of the European Union, and one of the three [[working language]]s of [[European Commission\|the European Commission]], along with English and French. Thirty-two percent of citizens of the EU-15 countries say they can converse in German (either as a mother tongue or as a second or foreign language).<ref>{{cite web\|url= http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/lang/languages/index_en.html\|title=Languages in Europe\|publisher=[[European Commission]]\|year=2007\|accessdate=2008-02-12}}</ref> This is assisted by the widespread availability of German TV by cable or satellite.

	German was once, and still remains to some extent, a [[lingua franca]] in Central, Eastern, and [[Northern Europe]] ~~{{Citation needed\|date=August 2010}}.~~		German was once, and still remains to some extent, a [[lingua franca]] in Central, Eastern, and [[Northern Europe]]

	==Dialects==		==Dialects==

Nick: /* History */

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History

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	==History==		==History==
	~~{{Main\|~~History of German}}
	[[~~File~~:AlthochdeutscheSprachräume962 Box.jpg\|right\|200px\|thumb\|The Germanic-speaking area of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] around 962.]]		See Also [[History of German]]

			[[image:AlthochdeutscheSprachräume962 Box.jpg\|right\|200px\|thumb\|The Germanic-speaking area of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] around 962.]]

	===Origins===		===Origins===

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	==See also==		==See also==

	~~<div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;">~~
	* [[Deutsch]] (disambiguation page)		* [[Deutsch]] (disambiguation page)
	* [[:Category:German loanwords]]		* [[:Category:German loanwords]]

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	German requires that a verbal element (main verb or [[auxiliary verb]]) appear second in the sentence. The verb is preceded by the [[topic-comment\|topic]] of the sentence. The element in focus appears at the end of the sentence. For a sentence without an auxiliary this gives, amongst other options:		German requires that a verbal element (main verb or [[auxiliary verb]]) appear second in the sentence. The verb is preceded by the [[topic-comment\|topic]] of the sentence. The element in focus appears at the end of the sentence. For a sentence without an auxiliary this gives, amongst other options:

	: ''~~{{lang\|de\|~~Der alte Mann gab mir gestern das Buch.}}'' (The old man gave me yesterday the book; normal order)		: ''Der alte Mann gab mir gestern das Buch.'' (The old man gave me yesterday the book; normal order)
	: ''~~{{lang\|de\|~~Das Buch gab mir gestern der alte Mann.}}'' (The book gave [to] me yesterday the old man)		: ''Das Buch gab mir gestern der alte Mann.'' (The book gave [to] me yesterday the old man)
	: ''~~{{lang\|de\|~~Das Buch gab der alte Mann mir gestern.}}'' (The book gave the old man [to] me yesterday)		: ''Das Buch gab der alte Mann mir gestern.'' (The book gave the old man [to] me yesterday)

	: ''~~{{lang\|de\|~~Gestern gab mir der alte Mann das Buch.}}'' (Yesterday gave [to] me the old man the book, normal order)		: ''Gestern gab mir der alte Mann das Buch.'' (Yesterday gave [to] me the old man the book, normal order)
	: ''~~{{lang\|de\|~~Mir gab der alte Mann das Buch gestern.}}'' ([To] me gave the old man the book yesterday (entailing: as for you, it was another date))		: ''Mir gab der alte Mann das Buch gestern.'' ([To] me gave the old man the book yesterday (entailing: as for you, it was another date))

	The position of a noun in a German sentence has no bearing on its being a subject, an object, or another argument. In a [[sentence (linguistics)\|declarative sentence]] in English if the subject does not occur before the predicate the sentence could well be misunderstood. This is not the case in German.		The position of a noun in a German sentence has no bearing on its being a subject, an object, or another argument. In a [[sentence (linguistics)\|declarative sentence]] in English if the subject does not occur before the predicate the sentence could well be misunderstood. This is not the case in German.
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	When an [[auxiliary verb]] is present, the auxiliary appears in second position, and the main verb appears at the end. This occurs notably in the creation of the [[perfect (grammar)\|perfect]]. Many word orders are still possible, e.g.:		When an [[auxiliary verb]] is present, the auxiliary appears in second position, and the main verb appears at the end. This occurs notably in the creation of the [[perfect (grammar)\|perfect]]. Many word orders are still possible, e.g.:

	:''~~{{lang\|de\|~~Der alte Mann hat mir heute das Buch gegeben.}}'' (The old man has given me the book today.)		:''Der alte Mann hat mir heute das Buch gegeben.'' (The old man has given me the book today.)
	:''~~{{lang\|de\|~~Das Buch hat der alte Mann mir heute gegeben.}}'' (The book has the old man given me today.)		:''Das Buch hat der alte Mann mir heute gegeben.'' (The book has the old man given me today.)
	:''~~{{lang\|de\|~~Heute hat der alte Mann mir das Buch gegeben.}}'' (Today the old man has given me the book.)		:''Heute hat der alte Mann mir das Buch gegeben.'' (Today the old man has given me the book.)

	====Modal verbs====		====Modal verbs====
	Sentences using modal verbs place the infinitive at the end. For example, the sentence in Modern English "Should he go home?" would be rearranged in German to say "Should he (to) home go?" (''~~{{lang\|de\|~~Soll er nach Hause gehen?}}''). Thus in sentences with several subordinate or relative clauses the infinitives are clustered at the end. Compare the similar clustering of prepositions in the following English sentence: "What did you bring that book which I don't like to be read to out of up for?"		Sentences using modal verbs place the infinitive at the end. For example, the sentence in Modern English "Should he go home?" would be rearranged in German to say "Should he (to) home go?" (''Soll er nach Hause gehen?''). Thus in sentences with several subordinate or relative clauses the infinitives are clustered at the end. Compare the similar clustering of prepositions in the following English sentence: "What did you bring that book which I don't like to be read to out of up for?"

	====Multiple infinitives====		====Multiple infinitives====