Biblical Hebrew - Revision history

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	== Phonology == <!-- This section is linked from [[Hebrew phonology]] -->		== Phonology == <!-- This section is linked from [[Hebrew phonology]] -->
	~~{{IPA notice}}~~
	The phonology as reconstructed for [[Biblical]] [[Hebrew]] is as follows:		The phonology as reconstructed for [[Biblical]] [[Hebrew]] is as follows:

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	=== Vowels ===		=== Vowels ===

	The original Hebrew alphabet consisted only of [[consonants]] (see [[Semitic languages]]). The vowel signs and pronunciation currently accepted for Biblical Hebrew were created by scholars known as [[Masoretes]] after the 5th century AD. These scholars are thought also to have standardized various dialectal differences.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \| title = Hebrew Language \| encyclopedia = Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2008 \| date = 2008 \| url = http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761553185/hebrew_language.html \| accessdate = 2006-05-23 }}</ref>		The original Hebrew alphabet consisted only of [[consonants]] (see [[Semitic languages]]). The vowel signs and pronunciation currently accepted for Biblical Hebrew were created by scholars known as [[Masoretes]] after the 5th century AD. These scholars are thought also to have standardized various dialectal differences.

	However, it is clear that Classical Hebrew's vowel inventory was not identical to that notated by the Masoretes. For instance, /e/ and /ē/ were both indicated with a [[tzeire]] in the Masoretic text, but in Greek transcription (LXX, Origen, etc.) are written with [[epsilon]] and [[eta]] respectively. This is also backed up by etymological and internal data.<ref>Dolgopolsky 1999, p. 14.</ref>		However, it is clear that Classical Hebrew's vowel inventory was not identical to that notated by the Masoretes. For instance, /e/ and /ē/ were both indicated with a [[tzeire]] in the Masoretic text, but in Greek transcription (LXX, Origen, etc.) are written with [[epsilon]] and [[eta]] respectively. This is also backed up by etymological and internal data.<ref>Dolgopolsky 1999, p. 14.</ref>



	== Resources ==		== Resources ==

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External links

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	[[Category:Hebrew Bible topics]]		[[Category:Hebrew Bible topics]]
	[[Category:Classical languages\|Hebrew]]		[[Category:Classical languages\|Hebrew]]

			{{Donate}}

Nick: /* External links */

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External links

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	**[http://biblical-studies.ca/hebrew/Kittel2_database.html The Kittel Hebrew Words Database (Second Ed.)] Learn by use of flashcards 490 important Biblical Hebrew words.		**[http://biblical-studies.ca/hebrew/Kittel2_database.html The Kittel Hebrew Words Database (Second Ed.)] Learn by use of flashcards 490 important Biblical Hebrew words.
	**[http://biblical-studies.ca/hebrew/pdfs/Writing_Hebrew.pdf Learn to write the Hebrew characters]		**[http://biblical-studies.ca/hebrew/pdfs/Writing_Hebrew.pdf Learn to write the Hebrew characters]
	~~{{Hebrew language}}~~
	~~{{Jewish languages}}~~

	[[Category:Hebrew language]]		[[Category:Hebrew language]]

Nick: /* Notes */

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Notes

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	==Notes==		==Notes==
	~~{{reflist}}~~
	# ISBN 1-56563-206-0 Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon by Francis Brown, S. Driver, C. Briggs		# ISBN 1-56563-206-0 Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon by Francis Brown, S. Driver, C. Briggs

Nick: /* Resources */

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Resources

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	== Resources ==		== Resources ==
	*Bonnie Pedrotti Kittel, Vicki Hoffer, and Rebecca Abts Wright, ''Biblical Hebrew: A Text and Workbook'' Yale Language Series; New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1989.		*Bonnie Pedrotti Kittel, Vicki Hoffer, and Rebecca Abts Wright, ''Biblical Hebrew: A Text and Workbook'' Yale Language Series; New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1989.
	*~~{{cite~~ book\|last = Dolgopolsky\|first = Aron\| title = From Proto-Semitic to Hebrew\| year = 1999 \| publisher = Centro Studi Camito-Semitici di Milano \| location = Milan}}		*book\|last = Dolgopolsky\|first = Aron\| title = From Proto-Semitic to Hebrew\| year = 1999 \| publisher = Centro Studi Camito-Semitici di Milano \| location = Milan
	*[[Emil Kautzsch\|Kautzsch, E.]] (ed.) ''Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar''. Eng. ed. [[A. E. Cowley]]. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1910.		*[[Emil Kautzsch\|Kautzsch, E.]] (ed.) ''Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar''. Eng. ed. [[A. E. Cowley]]. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1910.
	*[[Thomas Oden Lambdin \|Lambdin, Thomas O.]] ''Introduction to Biblical Hebrew''. London: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971.		*[[Thomas Oden Lambdin \|Lambdin, Thomas O.]] ''Introduction to Biblical Hebrew''. London: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971.

Nick at 08:37, 26 June 2009

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	From a [[linguistics\|linguistic]] point of view, the Classical Hebrew language is usually divided into two periods: Biblical Hebrew, and Roman Era Hebrew, having very distinct grammatical patterns.		From a [[linguistics\|linguistic]] point of view, the Classical Hebrew language is usually divided into two periods: Biblical Hebrew, and Roman Era Hebrew, having very distinct grammatical patterns.

	Biblical Hebrew is further divided into the so called 'Golden Age' Hebrew (before 500 BCE) and 'Silver Age' Hebrew (500 BCE to 60 BCE). Silver Age Hebrew has many borrowings from [[Aramaic language\|Aramaic]], for example the use of the conditional particle '''~~{{IPA\|~~ˈilluː}}''' (אִלּוּ) replacing '''~~{{IPA\|~~luː}}''' (לוּ). Another [[shibboleth]] between the two is the use of the [[relative pronoun]] '''~~{{IPA\|~~ʔaˈʃer}}''' (אֲשֶר) (introducing a [[Restrictive clause]], 'that') in the earlier period, being replaced with the [[clitic]] '''ʃe-''' (-שֶ) in the later, both being used in Mishnaic and [[Modern Hebrew]].		Biblical Hebrew is further divided into the so called 'Golden Age' Hebrew (before 500 BCE) and 'Silver Age' Hebrew (500 BCE to 60 BCE). Silver Age Hebrew has many borrowings from [[Aramaic language\|Aramaic]], for example the use of the conditional particle '''ˈilluː''' (אִלּוּ) replacing '''luː''' (לוּ). Another [[shibboleth]] between the two is the use of the [[relative pronoun]] '''ʔaˈʃer''' (אֲשֶר) (introducing a [[Restrictive clause]], 'that') in the earlier period, being replaced with the [[clitic]] '''ʃe-''' (-שֶ) in the later, both being used in Mishnaic and [[Modern Hebrew]].

	[[Roman Era]] Hebrew, or [[Mishnaic Hebrew]], was further influenced by [[Greek language\|Greek]] and [[Persian language\|Persian]], mainly through the dialect of [[Aramaic]] which was the [[Lingua franca]] of the area at the time.		[[Roman Era]] Hebrew, or [[Mishnaic Hebrew]], was further influenced by [[Greek language\|Greek]] and [[Persian language\|Persian]], mainly through the dialect of [[Aramaic]] which was the [[Lingua franca]] of the area at the time.

Nick: Protected "Biblical Hebrew" [edit=autoconfirmed:move=autoconfirmed]

2009-06-08T10:16:00Z

Protected "Biblical Hebrew" [edit=autoconfirmed:move=autoconfirmed]

← Older revision	Revision as of 10:16, 8 June 2009
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Nick: /* Historical sound changes */

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Historical sound changes

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	However, it is clear that Classical Hebrew's vowel inventory was not identical to that notated by the Masoretes. For instance, /e/ and /ē/ were both indicated with a [[tzeire]] in the Masoretic text, but in Greek transcription (LXX, Origen, etc.) are written with [[epsilon]] and [[eta]] respectively. This is also backed up by etymological and internal data.<ref>Dolgopolsky 1999, p. 14.</ref>		However, it is clear that Classical Hebrew's vowel inventory was not identical to that notated by the Masoretes. For instance, /e/ and /ē/ were both indicated with a [[tzeire]] in the Masoretic text, but in Greek transcription (LXX, Origen, etc.) are written with [[epsilon]] and [[eta]] respectively. This is also backed up by etymological and internal data.<ref>Dolgopolsky 1999, p. 14.</ref>

	~~==Historical sound changes==~~
	~~=== Consonantism ===~~
	As Biblical Hebrew (BH) evolved from [[Proto-Semitic]] (PS) it underwent a number of mergers<ref>{{cite book \|author=S. Moscati et al. \|title=An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages, Phonology and Morphology \| location=[[Wiesbaden]] \|publisher=Harrassowitz \|year=1964 \|id=}}</ref>,<ref>[[Gotthelf Bergsträsser \|G. Bergsträsser]]. (1983). ''Introduction to the Semitic Languages''. Translated by [[Peter T. Daniels]]. [[Winona Lake, Indiana]]: Eisenbrauns.</ref><ref>Dolgopolsky 1999, pp. 57-59.</ref>:
	* PS {{IPA\|/ð/}} and {{IPA\|/z/}} merged as BH {{IPA\|/z/}}
	* PS {{IPA\|/θ/}} and {{IPA\|/ʃ/}} merged as BH {{IPA\|/ʃ/}}
	* PS {{IPA\|/θˁ/}}, {{IPA\|/ɬˁ/}}, and *{{IPA\|/sˁ/}} merged as BH {{IPA\|/sˁ/}}
	* PS {{IPA\|/ɣ/}} and {{IPA\|/ʕ/}} merged as BH {{IPA\|/ʕ/}}<SUP>1)</SUP>
	* PS {{IPA\|/x/}} and {{IPA\|/ħ/}} merged as BH {{IPA\|/ħ/}}<SUP>1)</SUP>
	* PS {{IPA\|/w/}} and {{IPA\|/j/}} merged as BH {{IPA\|/j/}} in word-initial position; > Ø between vowels
	* PS *{{IPA\|/ʕ/}} > BH Ø (with [[compensatory lengthening]]) in the [[syllable coda]]
	* PS *-{{IPA\|/át/}} > BH -{{IPA\|/áː/}} in the ending of the feminine; not in the [[status constructus]]).
	* PS *{{IPA\|/h/}} > BH Ø between vowels in the pronominal suffix (with [[Contraction (phonology)\|contraction]], see below).
	* PS *{{IPA\|/ʃ/}} > BH {{IPA\|/h/}} in grammatical morphemes
	* PS n,mC > BH CC, e.g. ʔanta>*ʔattāh
	** exception: PS -inʃ- > BH -iːʃ(-), -anʃ- > BH -anʃ-, and in grammatical morphemes *-ˈVnʃ- > BH -nn-
	: 1) Greek transcriptions<ref>see also {{PDFLink\|[http://www.exc.com/JoelHoffman/Excerpts/ITB-p95.pdf "Various names in Hebrew and Greek"]}}</ref> provide evidence that [[Hebrew Bible\|Biblical]] Hebrew maintained the proto-Semitic consonants {{IPA\|/ɣ/}}, {{IPA\|/x/}} for longer than the writing system might suggest. Thus ''{{Unicode\|[[Gomorra\|ʿǍmōrāh]]}}'' (עֲמוֹרָה) is transcribed as ''{{Unicode\|Gómorrha}}'' ({{Polytonic\|Γόμορρα}}) in Greek, whereas ''{{Unicode\|[[Eber\|ʿĒḇer]]}}'' (עֵבֶר) is transcribed as ''{{Unicode\|Éber}}'' ({{Polytonic\|Ἔβερ}}) with no intrusive ''g''; since comparative Semitic evidence shows that proto-Semitic {{IPA\|/ɣ/}} and {{IPA\|/ʕ/}} both became [[Ayin\|ʿayin]] (ע) in later Hebrew, this suggests that the distinction was still maintained in Classical times. Similarly ''{{Unicode\|[[Rachel\|Raħēl]]}}'' (רָחֵל) is transcribed as ''{{Unicode\|Rhakhḗl}}'' ({{Polytonic\|Ῥαχήλ}}), whereas ''{{Unicode\|[[Isaac\|Yisˁħāq]]}}'' (יִצְחָק) becomes ''{{IPA\|Isaák}}'' ({{Polytonic\|Ἰσαάκ}}).

	~~=== Vocalism ===~~
	* PS *{{IPA\|/á:/}} > BH {{IPA\|/o:/}}; in word-final position > {{IPA\|/a:/}}
	* PS *{{IPA\|/a:/}} > BH {{IPA\|/a:/}}
	* PS *{{IPA\|/í:/}} > BH {{IPA\|/i:/}} or, before ה ח ע, {{IPA\|/i:<SUP>a</SUP>/}} (''{{IPA\|páṯaḥ furtivum}}'');
	~~: in word-final position regularly > {{IPA\|/ɛ:/}}~~
	* PS *{{IPA\|/ú:/}} > BH {{IPA\|/u:/}} or, before ה ח ע, {{IPA\|/u:<SUP>a</SUP>/}}(''{{IPA\|páṯaḥ furtivum}}'')
	* PS *{{IPA\|/ó:/}} > BH {{IPA\|/o:/}}
	* PS *{{IPA\|/o:, u:/}} > BH {{IPA\|/u:/}};
	~~: in an open syllable before a following *{{IPA\|/o:/}} > BH {{IPA\|/i:/}}~~

	* PS *{{IPA\|/a, i, u/}} > Ø in word-final position
	* PS *{{IPA\|/a, i, u/}} in open unstressed syllables > Ø ("[[Shwa\|{{IPA\|šəwa mobile}}]]") two or more syllables before the stressed syllable;
	: before or after א ה ח ע > {{IPA\|/<SUP>a</SUP>/}} ("{{IPA\|ḥāṭēp̄ pátaḥ}}") or, if the adjacent syllable has {{IPA\|/<SUP>e, ɛ</SUP>/}} or {{IPA\|/<SUP>o, ɔ</SUP>/}}, {{IPA\|/<SUP>ɛ</SUP>/}} ("{{IPA\|ḥāṭēp̄ s<SUP>e</SUP>ḡōl}}") and {{IPA\|/<SUP> ɔ</SUP>/}} ("{{IPA\|ḥāṭēp̄ qāmeṣ}}") respectively;
	~~:in verbs also in the second syllable of the word if the following syllable is stressed;~~
	:in nouns in the second syllable of status constructus > {{IPA\|/<SUP>ə</SUP>/}} (the consonant carrying the [[Shwa\|{{IPA\|š<SUP>e</SUP>əwa}}]] is marked with "{{IPA\|dāḡēš dirimens}}" or the following consonant is fricative, indicating that it was preceded by a vowel).
	* PS *{{IPA\|/á/}} > BH {{IPA\|/a:/}} in open syllables (sometimes {{IPA\|/a/}}, {{IPA\|/ɛ/}})
	* PS *{{IPA\|/a/}} > BH Ø;
	~~: immediately before the stress > {{IPA\|/a:/}} (”{{IPA\|qāmeṣ antetonicum}}”);~~
	~~: in closed syllables > {{IPA\|/i/}}~~
	* PS *{{IPA\|/í, ú/}} > BH {{IPA\|/e:, o:/}} or, before ה ח ע, {{IPA\|/e:<SUP>a</SUP>, o:<SUP>a</SUP>/}} ("{{IPA\|páṯaḥ furtivum}}");
	~~: in closed syllables in verbal forms > {{IPA\|/e, o/}} or, before ה ח ע, {{IPA\|/a/}};~~
	~~: in syllables that were closed already in Proto-Semitic > {{IPA\|/a/}} ("Philippi’s law")~~
	* PS *{{IPA\|/i/}} > BH {{IPA\|/i/}} or, before or after ה ח ע, {{IPA\|/a/}};
	~~: immediately before the stress > {{IPA\|/e:/}} ("{{IPA\|ṣērē antetonicum}}")~~
	* PS *{{IPA\|/u/}} > BH Ø ("{{IPA\|š<SUP>e</SUP>əwa mobile}}") or {{IPA\|/<SUP>ɔ</SUP>/}} (”{{IPA\|ḥāṭēp̄ qāmeṣ}}”);
	~~: in closed syllables > {{IPA\|/ɔ/}} ("{{IPA\|qāmeṣ qāṭān}}") or, before a geminated consonant, {{IPA\|/u/}}~~
	* PS *{{IPA\|/áw/}} > BH {{IPA\|/a:w/}}
	* PS *{{IPA\|/aw/}} > BH {{IPA\|/o:/}}
	* PS *{{IPA\|/áy/}} > BH {{IPA\|/ay/}} or in an open syllable, {{IPA\|/e:/}} or, in word-final position, {{IPA\|/ɛ:/}}
	* PS *{{IPA\|/ay/}} > BH {{IPA\|/e:/}}
	* Contractions after loss of PS *{{IPA\|/h/}} in the pronominal suffix:
	~~: *{{IPA\|/-a-hu:/}} > {{IPA\|/-o:/}}~~
	~~: *{{IPA\|/-a-ha:/}} > {{IPA\|/-a:/}}~~
	~~: *{{IPA\|/-a-hɛm/}} > {{IPA\|/-a:m/}}~~
	~~: *{{IPA\|/-e:-hɛm/}} > {{IPA\|/-e:m/}}~~
	~~: *{{IPA\|/-i:-hu:/}} > {{IPA\|/-i:w/}}~~
	~~: *{{IPA\|/-i:-hɛm/}} > {{IPA\|/-i:m/}}~~
	~~: *{{IPA\|/-u:-hɛm/}} > {{IPA\|/-u:m/}}~~
	~~: *{{IPA\|/-ay-hu:/}} > {{IPA\|/-a:w/}}~~

	== Resources ==		== Resources ==

Nick: New page: '''Biblical Hebrew''', also called '''Classical Hebrew''', is an archaic form of the Hebrew language in which the Hebrew Bible and various [[Israelites|Israeli...

2009-06-08T10:14:02Z

New page: '''Biblical Hebrew''', also called '''Classical Hebrew''', is an archaic form of the Hebrew language in which the Hebrew Bible and various [[Israelites|Israeli...

New page

'''Biblical Hebrew''', also called '''Classical Hebrew''', is an [[archaic]] form of the [[Hebrew languages|Hebrew language]] in which the [[Hebrew Bible]] and various [[Israelites|Israelite]] inscriptions were written.

It is not spoken in its pure form today, although it is often studied by [[Jew]]s, [[Christian theology|Christian theologians]], [[linguistics|linguists]], and Israeli [[archeology|archaeologists]] to help them gain a deeper understanding of the Hebrew Bible and [[Semitic languages|Semitic philology]]. Classical Hebrew is also generally taught in public schools in [[Israel]].

Biblical Hebrew and modern Hebrew differ with respect to grammar, vocabulary, and phonology. Although Modern and Biblical Hebrew's grammatical laws often differ, Biblical Hebrew is sometimes used in Modern Hebrew literature, much as archaic and Biblical constructions are used in Modern English literature.

== Definition ==
This article describes the Biblical dialects of Hebrew. These flourished between the 12th and 6th centuries BCE and comprise all of the [[Hebrew Bible]] but for several Aramaic sections and isolated loanwords.

The precise meaning of the term ''Biblical Hebrew'' varies with context and may refer to any of the following:
* all Hebrew dialects found in the Hebrew Bible, including the Archaic Biblical, Biblical, and Late Biblical [[Hebrew language#Classical Hebrew|Hebrew]] dialects
* the Hebrew of only the corpus of the Hebrew Bible itself, not including other texts - such as inscriptions - that use related Hebrew dialects
* [[Tiberian Hebrew]], also called Masoretic Hebrew, which is an early-medieval vocalization of the Hebrew Bible's ancient consonantal text

From a [[linguistics|linguistic]] point of view, the Classical Hebrew language is usually divided into two periods: Biblical Hebrew, and Roman Era Hebrew, having very distinct grammatical patterns.

Biblical Hebrew is further divided into the so called 'Golden Age' Hebrew (before 500 BCE) and 'Silver Age' Hebrew (500 BCE to 60 BCE). Silver Age Hebrew has many borrowings from [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], for example the use of the conditional particle '''{{IPA|ˈilluː}}''' (אִלּוּ) replacing '''{{IPA|luː}}''' (לוּ). Another [[shibboleth]] between the two is the use of the [[relative pronoun]] '''{{IPA|ʔaˈʃer}}''' (אֲשֶר) (introducing a [[Restrictive clause]], 'that') in the earlier period, being replaced with the [[clitic]] '''ʃe-''' (-שֶ) in the later, both being used in Mishnaic and [[Modern Hebrew]].

[[Roman Era]] Hebrew, or [[Mishnaic Hebrew]], was further influenced by [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Persian language|Persian]], mainly through the dialect of [[Aramaic]] which was the [[Lingua franca]] of the area at the time.

Modern adaptions of Classical Hebrew are in active use today, mostly in the form of various modern [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[dialect]]s of Hebrew, as well as [[Samaritan Hebrew language]], which is used primarily by the [[Samaritan]]s.

As Biblical-Hebrew vocalization is derived from the Masoretic system applied to ancient texts, Biblical Hebrew is somewhat a mixture of these elements. It is the mixed language that is discussed in this article.

Most words in Biblical Hebrew are derived from a three letter root usually given in the Qal perfect 3rd masculine singular form. There are exceptions to this rule though most of these are loan words from non-Semitic roots. For most English speaking readers who use the [[Brown-Driver-Briggs]] Lexicon it is this three letter root word that must be looked up to find a definition.

== Descendant languages ==
* [[Samaritan Hebrew language]] ''(liturgical)''
* [[Mishnaic Hebrew language]] ([[Judaism|Jews]])
* [[Tiberian Hebrew language]] ''(liturgical)''
* [[Yemenite Hebrew language]] ''(liturgical)''
* [[Sephardi Hebrew language]] ''(liturgical)''
* [[Ashkenazi Hebrew|Ashkenazi Hebrew language]] ''(liturgical)''
* [[Hebrew language#Modern Hebrew|Modern Hebrew]] ([[State of Israel]])

== Phonology == 
{{IPA notice}}
The phonology as reconstructed for [[Biblical]] [[Hebrew]] is as follows:

=== Consonants ===

{|
| '''Name''' || '''Letter''' || '''[[Phoneme]] and Allophone ([[help:IPA|IPA]])'''
|-
| ''{{unicode|''’āleph''}}'' || {{unicode|[[א]]}} || {{IPA|/[[ʔ]]/}}
|-
| ''{{unicode|''bēṯ''}}'' || {{unicode|[[ב]]}} || {{IPA|/[[b]]/}} - {{IPA|[[v]]}} allophonically1
|-
| ''gîmel'' || {{unicode|[[ג]]}} || {{IPA|/[[ɡ]]/ - [[ɣ]]}} allophonically1
|-
| ''{{unicode|dāleṯ}}'' || {{unicode|[[ד]]}} || {{IPA|/[[d]]/ - [[ð]]}} allophonically1
|-
| ''hē'' '' || {{unicode|[[ה]]}} || {{IPA|/[[h]]/}}, null at the end of words.2
|-
| ''wāw'' || {{unicode|[[ו]]}} || {{IPA|/[[w]]/}}, null after {{IPA|/o/}} or {{IPA|/u/}} 2
|-
| ''[[zayin]]''|| {{unicode|[[ז]]}} || {{IPA|/[[z]]/}}
|-
| ''{{unicode|''ḥēṯ''}}''|| {{unicode|[[ח]]}} || {{IPA|/[[ħ]]/}}, ({{IPA|/[[χ]]/}}3)
|-
| ''{{unicode|''ṭēṯ''}}''|| {{unicode|[[ט]]}} || {{IPA|/[[Pharyngealization|tˁ]]/}}
|-
| ''{{unicode|''yōḏ''}}'' || {{unicode|[[י]]}} || {{IPA|/[[j]]/}}, null after {{IPA|/[[ɛ]]/}}, {{IPA|/e/}}, or {{IPA|/i/}}2
|-
| ''{{unicode|''kaph''}}'' || {{unicode|[[כ]]}}, {{unicode|[[ך]]}} || {{IPA|/[[k]]/}} - {{IPA|[[x]]}} allophonically1
|-
| ''{{unicode|''lāmeḏh''}}'' || {{unicode|[[ל]]}} || {{IPA|/[[l]]/}}
|-
| ''mēm'' || {{unicode|[[מ]]}}, {{unicode|[[ם]]}} || {{IPA|/[[m]]/}}
|-
| ''nûn'' || {{unicode|[[נ]]}}, {{unicode|[[ן]]}} || {{IPA|/[[n]]/}}
|-
| ''{{unicode|''sāmeḵh''}}'' || {{unicode|[[ס]]}} || {{IPA|/[[s]]/}}
|-
| ''{{unicode|‛''ayin''}} || {{unicode|[[ע]]}} || {{IPA|/[[ʕ]]/}}, ({{IPA|/[[ɣ]]/}}3)
|-
| ''pēh''' || {{unicode|[[פ]]}}, {{unicode|[[ף]]}} || {{IPA|/[[p]]/}} - {{IPA|[[f]]}} allophonically1
|-
| ''{{unicode|tṣāḏēk}}'' || {{unicode|[[צ]]}}, {{unicode|[[ץ]]}} || {{IPA|/[[Pharyngealization|sˁ]]/}}
|-
| ''{{unicode|qōph}}'' || {{unicode|[[ק]]}} || {{IPA|/[[Pharyngealization|kˁ]]/}} (or {{IPA|/[[q]]/}})
|-
| ''rēšh'' || {{unicode|[[ר]]}} || {{IPA|/[[ɾ]]/}} ([[Trill consonant|trilled]] like in [[Arabic]])
|-
| ''śhîn''/''šîn''/ || {{unicode|[[ש]]}} || {{IPA|/[[ɬ]]/}}, [[s]], {{IPA|/[[ʃ]]/}}
|-
| ''tāph'' || {{unicode|[[ת]]}} || {{IPA|/[[t]]/}} - {{IPA|[[θ]]}} allophonically1
|}
# Begedkefet spirantization developed sometime during the lifetime of Biblical Hebrew under the influence of Aramaic<ref>Or perhaps Hurrian, but this is unlikely, c.f. Dolgoposky 1999, pp. 72-73.</ref>. Its terminus post quem can be found by noting that the Old Aramaic phonemes /θ, ð/ disappeared in the 7th century BC.<ref>Dolsopolsky 1999, p. 72.</ref> Its terminus ante quem in Hebrew is the 2nd century CE.<ref>Dolgopolsky 1999, p. 73.</ref> It is unclear whether they should be considered allophones or separate phonemes, since after a certain development of schwa minimal pairs became theoretically possible (if almost unattested).<ref>Dolgopolsky 1999, p. 74.</ref>
# [[mater lectionis]]
# These merged with /ħ, ʕ/ respectively at some stage, but from Greek transcriptions it is clear that they were distinguished at some point in the life of Classical Hebrew (e.g. [[Gaza]] vs. [[Ezra]]). It is unlikely that this merger occurred after begedkefet spirantization, or else /x, χ/ and /ɣ, ʁ/ would have to be contrastive, which is cross-linguistically rare.

=== Vowels ===

The original Hebrew alphabet consisted only of [[consonants]] (see [[Semitic languages]]). The vowel signs and pronunciation currently accepted for Biblical Hebrew were created by scholars known as [[Masoretes]] after the 5th century AD. These scholars are thought also to have standardized various dialectal differences.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title = Hebrew Language | encyclopedia = Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2008 | date = 2008 | url = http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761553185/hebrew_language.html | accessdate = 2006-05-23 }}</ref>

However, it is clear that Classical Hebrew's vowel inventory was not identical to that notated by the Masoretes. For instance, /e/ and /ē/ were both indicated with a [[tzeire]] in the Masoretic text, but in Greek transcription (LXX, Origen, etc.) are written with [[epsilon]] and [[eta]] respectively. This is also backed up by etymological and internal data.<ref>Dolgopolsky 1999, p. 14.</ref>

==Historical sound changes==
=== Consonantism ===
As Biblical Hebrew (BH) evolved from [[Proto-Semitic]] (PS) it underwent a number of mergers<ref>{{cite book |author=S. Moscati et al. |title=An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages, Phonology and Morphology | location=[[Wiesbaden]] |publisher=Harrassowitz |year=1964 |id=}}</ref>,<ref>[[Gotthelf Bergsträsser |G. Bergsträsser]]. (1983). ''Introduction to the Semitic Languages''. Translated by [[Peter T. Daniels]]. [[Winona Lake, Indiana]]: Eisenbrauns.</ref><ref>Dolgopolsky 1999, pp. 57-59.</ref>:
* PS *{{IPA|/ð/}} and *{{IPA|/z/}} merged as BH {{IPA|/z/}}
* PS *{{IPA|/θ/}} and *{{IPA|/ʃ/}} merged as BH {{IPA|/ʃ/}}
* PS *{{IPA|/θˁ/}}, *{{IPA|/ɬˁ/}}, and *{{IPA|/sˁ/}} merged as BH {{IPA|/sˁ/}}
* PS *{{IPA|/ɣ/}} and *{{IPA|/ʕ/}} merged as BH {{IPA|/ʕ/}}1)
* PS *{{IPA|/x/}} and *{{IPA|/ħ/}} merged as BH {{IPA|/ħ/}}1)
* PS *{{IPA|/w/}} and *{{IPA|/j/}} merged as BH {{IPA|/j/}} in word-initial position; > Ø between vowels
* PS *{{IPA|/ʕ/}} > BH Ø (with [[compensatory lengthening]]) in the [[syllable coda]]
* PS *-{{IPA|/át/}} > BH -{{IPA|/áː/}} in the ending of the feminine; not in the [[status constructus]]).
* PS *{{IPA|/h/}} > BH Ø between vowels in the pronominal suffix (with [[Contraction (phonology)|contraction]], see below).
* PS *{{IPA|/ʃ/}} > BH {{IPA|/h/}} in grammatical morphemes
* PS *n,mC > BH CC, e.g. *ʔanta>*ʔattāh
** exception: PS *-inʃ- > BH -iːʃ(-), *-anʃ- > BH -anʃ-, and in grammatical morphemes *-ˈVnʃ- > BH -nn-
: 1) Greek transcriptions<ref>see also {{PDFLink|[http://www.exc.com/JoelHoffman/Excerpts/ITB-p95.pdf "Various names in Hebrew and Greek"]}}</ref> provide evidence that [[Hebrew Bible|Biblical]] Hebrew maintained the proto-Semitic consonants {{IPA|/ɣ/}}, {{IPA|/x/}} for longer than the writing system might suggest. Thus ''{{Unicode|[[Gomorra|ʿǍmōrāh]]}}'' (עֲמוֹרָה) is transcribed as ''{{Unicode|Gómorrha}}'' ({{Polytonic|Γόμορρα}}) in Greek, whereas ''{{Unicode|[[Eber|ʿĒḇer]]}}'' (עֵבֶר) is transcribed as ''{{Unicode|Éber}}'' ({{Polytonic|Ἔβερ}}) with no intrusive ''g''; since comparative Semitic evidence shows that proto-Semitic *{{IPA|/ɣ/}} and *{{IPA|/ʕ/}} both became [[Ayin|ʿayin]] (ע) in later Hebrew, this suggests that the distinction was still maintained in Classical times. Similarly ''{{Unicode|[[Rachel|Raħēl]]}}'' (רָחֵל) is transcribed as ''{{Unicode|Rhakhḗl}}'' ({{Polytonic|Ῥαχήλ}}), whereas ''{{Unicode|[[Isaac|Yisˁħāq]]}}'' (יִצְחָק) becomes ''{{IPA|Isaák}}'' ({{Polytonic|Ἰσαάκ}}).

=== Vocalism ===
* PS *{{IPA|/á:/}} > BH {{IPA|/o:/}}; in word-final position > {{IPA|/a:/}}
* PS *{{IPA|/a:/}} > BH {{IPA|/a:/}}
* PS *{{IPA|/í:/}} > BH {{IPA|/i:/}} or, before ה ח ע, {{IPA|/i:a/}} (''{{IPA|páṯaḥ furtivum}}'');
: in word-final position regularly > {{IPA|/ɛ:/}}
* PS *{{IPA|/ú:/}} > BH {{IPA|/u:/}} or, before ה ח ע, {{IPA|/u:a/}}(''{{IPA|páṯaḥ furtivum}}'')
* PS *{{IPA|/ó:/}} > BH {{IPA|/o:/}}
* PS *{{IPA|/o:, u:/}} > BH {{IPA|/u:/}};
: in an open syllable before a following *{{IPA|/o:/}} > BH {{IPA|/i:/}}

* PS *{{IPA|/a, i, u/}} > Ø in word-final position
* PS *{{IPA|/a, i, u/}} in open unstressed syllables > Ø ("[[Shwa|{{IPA|šəwa mobile}}]]") two or more syllables before the stressed syllable;
: before or after א ה ח ע > {{IPA|/a/}} ("{{IPA|ḥāṭēp̄ pátaḥ}}") or, if the adjacent syllable has {{IPA|/e, ɛ/}} or {{IPA|/o, ɔ/}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/}} ("{{IPA|ḥāṭēp̄ seḡōl}}") and {{IPA|/ ɔ/}} ("{{IPA|ḥāṭēp̄ qāmeṣ}}") respectively;
:in verbs also in the second syllable of the word if the following syllable is stressed;
:in nouns in the second syllable of status constructus > {{IPA|/ə/}} (the consonant carrying the [[Shwa|{{IPA|šeəwa}}]] is marked with "{{IPA|dāḡēš dirimens}}" or the following consonant is fricative, indicating that it was preceded by a vowel).
* PS *{{IPA|/á/}} > BH {{IPA|/a:/}} in open syllables (sometimes {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/}})
* PS *{{IPA|/a/}} > BH Ø;
: immediately before the stress > {{IPA|/a:/}} (”{{IPA|qāmeṣ antetonicum}}”);
: in closed syllables > {{IPA|/i/}}
* PS *{{IPA|/í, ú/}} > BH {{IPA|/e:, o:/}} or, before ה ח ע, {{IPA|/e:a, o:a/}} ("{{IPA|páṯaḥ furtivum}}");
: in closed syllables in verbal forms > {{IPA|/e, o/}} or, before ה ח ע, {{IPA|/a/}};
: in syllables that were closed already in Proto-Semitic > {{IPA|/a/}} ("Philippi’s law")
* PS *{{IPA|/i/}} > BH {{IPA|/i/}} or, before or after ה ח ע, {{IPA|/a/}};
: immediately before the stress > {{IPA|/e:/}} ("{{IPA|ṣērē antetonicum}}")
* PS *{{IPA|/u/}} > BH Ø ("{{IPA|šeəwa mobile}}") or {{IPA|/ɔ/}} (”{{IPA|ḥāṭēp̄ qāmeṣ}}”);
: in closed syllables > {{IPA|/ɔ/}} ("{{IPA|qāmeṣ qāṭān}}") or, before a geminated consonant, {{IPA|/u/}}
* PS *{{IPA|/áw/}} > BH {{IPA|/a:w/}}
* PS *{{IPA|/aw/}} > BH {{IPA|/o:/}}
* PS *{{IPA|/áy/}} > BH {{IPA|/ay/}} or in an open syllable, {{IPA|/e:/}} or, in word-final position, {{IPA|/ɛ:/}}
* PS *{{IPA|/ay/}} > BH {{IPA|/e:/}}
* Contractions after loss of PS *{{IPA|/h/}} in the pronominal suffix:
: *{{IPA|/-a-hu:/}} > {{IPA|/-o:/}}
: *{{IPA|/-a-ha:/}} > {{IPA|/-a:/}}
: *{{IPA|/-a-hɛm/}} > {{IPA|/-a:m/}}
: *{{IPA|/-e:-hɛm/}} > {{IPA|/-e:m/}}
: *{{IPA|/-i:-hu:/}} > {{IPA|/-i:w/}}
: *{{IPA|/-i:-hɛm/}} > {{IPA|/-i:m/}}
: *{{IPA|/-u:-hɛm/}} > {{IPA|/-u:m/}}
: *{{IPA|/-ay-hu:/}} > {{IPA|/-a:w/}}

== Resources ==
*Bonnie Pedrotti Kittel, Vicki Hoffer, and Rebecca Abts Wright, ''Biblical Hebrew: A Text and Workbook'' Yale Language Series; New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1989.
*{{cite book|last = Dolgopolsky|first = Aron| title = From Proto-Semitic to Hebrew| year = 1999 | publisher = Centro Studi Camito-Semitici di Milano | location = Milan}}
*[[Emil Kautzsch|Kautzsch, E.]] (ed.) ''Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar''. Eng. ed. [[A. E. Cowley]]. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1910.
*[[Thomas Oden Lambdin |Lambdin, Thomas O.]] ''Introduction to Biblical Hebrew''. London: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971.
*Würthwein, Ernst. The Text of the Old Testament (trans. Erroll F. Rhodes) Grand Rapids: Wm.B.Eardmans Publishing. 1995. ISBN 0-8028-0788-7.

==Notes==
{{reflist}}
# ISBN 1-56563-206-0 Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon by Francis Brown, S. Driver, C. Briggs

==External links==
*History of the Hebrew Language
**[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/history_of_hebrewtoc.htm History of the Ancient and Modern Hebrew Language], David Steinberg
**[http://www.houseofdavid.ca/anc_heb.htm Biblical Hebrew Poetry and Word Play - Reconstructing the Original Oral, Aural and Visual Experience]
**[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/rabin_he.htm Short History of the Hebrew Language], [[Chaim Menachem Rabin|Chaim Rabin]]
**[http://www.biblescripture.net/Hebrew.html The Alphabet of Biblical Hebrew]

*Grammar and Vocabulary
** [http://www.hebrew4christians.com/Grammar/grammar.html Basic Biblical Hebrew Grammar (introductory)]
**[http://biblical-studies.ca/hebrew/Kittel2_database.html The Kittel Hebrew Words Database (Second Ed.)] Learn by use of flashcards 490 important Biblical Hebrew words.
**[http://biblical-studies.ca/hebrew/pdfs/Writing_Hebrew.pdf Learn to write the Hebrew characters]
{{Hebrew language}}
{{Jewish languages}}

[[Category:Hebrew language]]
[[Category:Ancient languages|Hebrew language, Biblical]]
[[Category:Hebrew Bible topics]]
[[Category:Classical languages|Hebrew]]