Editing Participle (section)

==Indo-European languages==

===Germanic languages===

====English "Modern English"====
In [[Old English]], past participles of [[Germanic strong verb]]s were marked with a ''ge-'' prefix, as were most strong and weak past participles in Dutch and German today, and often by a vowel change in the stem. Those of weak verbs were marked by the ending ''-d'', with or without an [[epenthesis|epenthetic]] vowel before it. Modern English past participles derive from these forms (although the ''ge-'' prefix, which became ''y-'' in Middle English, has now been lost).

Old English present participles were marked with an ending in ''-ende'' (or ''-iende'' for verbs whose infinitives ended in ''-ian''). In [[Middle English]], various forms were used in different regions: ''-ende'' (southwest, southeast, [[English Midlands|Midlands]]), ''-inde'' (southwest, southeast), ''-and'' (north), ''-inge'' (southeast). The last is the one that became standard, falling together with the suffix ''-ing'' used to form [[verbal noun]]s. See [[-ing#Etymology|''-ing'' (etymology)]].

[[Modern English]] verbs, then, have two participles:
* The ''present participle'', also sometimes called the ''[[active voice|active]]'', ''[[imperfect]]'', or ''[[progressive aspect|progressive]]'' participle, takes the ending ''-ing''. It is identical in form to the [[gerund]] (and [[verbal noun]]); the term ''present participle'' is sometimes used to include the gerund, and the term "gerund–participle" is also used.
* The ''past participle'', also sometimes called the ''[[passive voice|passive]]'' or ''[[perfect (grammar)|perfect]]'' participle, is identical to the [[simple past|past tense]] form (in ''-ed'') in the case of regular verbs, but takes various forms in the case of [[English irregular verbs|irregular verbs]], such as ''sung'', ''written'', ''put'', ''gone'', etc.

Details of participle formation can be found under [[English verbs]] and [[List of English irregular verbs]].

The present participle, or participial phrases (clauses) formed from it, are used as follows: 
*to form the [[progressive aspect|progressive]] (continuous) aspect: ''Jim was '''sleeping'''.''
*as an [[adjective phrase]] modifying a noun phrase: ''The man '''sitting''' over there is my uncle.'' 
*adverbially, the [[subject (grammar)|subject]] being understood to be the same as that of the main clause: '''''Looking''' at the plans, I gradually came to see where the problem lay.'' ''He shot the man, '''killing '''him.'' 
*similarly, but with a different subject, placed before the participle (the [[nominative absolute]] construction): ''He and I '''having''' reconciled our differences, the project then proceeded smoothly.''
*more generally as a clause or sentence modifier: ''Broadly '''speaking''', the project was successful.'' (See also [[dangling participle]].)

Past participles, or participial phrases (clauses) formed from them, are used as follows:
*to form the [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]] aspect: ''The chicken has '''eaten'''.''
*to form the [[English passive voice|passive voice]]: ''The chicken was '''eaten'''.''
*as an adjective phrase: ''The chicken '''eaten''' by the children was contaminated.'' (See also [[reduced relative clause]].)
*adverbially: '''''Seen''' from this perspective, the problem presents no easy solution.''
*in a nominative absolute construction, with a subject: ''The task '''finished''', we returned home.''

Both types of participles are also often used as pure adjectives (see [[#Types of participles|Types of participles]] above). Here present participles are used in their active sense ("an ''exciting'' adventure", i.e. one that excites), while past participles are usually used passively ("the ''attached'' files", i.e. those that have been attached), although those formed from [[intransitive verb]]s may sometimes be used with active meaning ("our ''fallen'' comrades", i.e. those who have fallen). Some such adjectives also form adverbs, such as ''interestingly'' and ''excitedly''.

The [[gerund]] is distinct from the present participle in that it (or rather the verb phrase it forms) acts as a noun rather than an adjective or adverb: "I like ''sleeping'''"; "''Sleeping'' is not allowed." There is also a pure [[verbal noun]] with the same form ("the ''breaking'' of one's vows is not to be taken lightly"). For more on the distinctions between these uses of the ''-ing'' verb form, see [[-ing#Uses|''-ing'': uses]].

For more details on uses of participles and other parts of verbs in English, see [[Uses of English verb forms]], including the sections on the [[Uses of English verb forms#Present participle|present participle]] and [[Uses of English verb forms#Past participle|past participle]].

===Latin and Romance languages===

====Latin====
See Also [[Latin conjugation#Participles]]

[[Latin]] has [[Latin conjugation#The participles|three participles]]:

* present active participle: present stem + -ns (gen. –ntis); e.g. ''educāns''  "teaching"
* perfect passive participle: participial stem + -us, -a, -um; e.g. ''educātus''  "(having been) taught"
* future active participle: participial stem + -ūrus, -ūra, -ūrum; e.g. ''educātūrus''  "about to teach"

The [[Latin conjugation#The gerundive|gerundive]] is sometimes considered the future passive participle, although it more closely resembles the [[jussive mood]] than the [[future tense]]. It is formed from the present stem + (e)ndus, -a, -um; e.g. ''educandus'' "needing to be taught". (cf. the paradigms for the Latin verbs: '''ēdūcō''' "I lead forth" ('''ēdūcendus''' "which is to be led forth") and '''ēducō''' "I educate" ('''ēducandus''' "which is to be educated") in Wiktionary: [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/educo#Latin])

{| class="wikitable unicode" style="text-align: center;"
! ''ēducō''<br>"I educate" !! active !! passive
|-
! present
| ''ēducāns'' || —
|-
! perfect
| — || ''ēducātus''
|-
! future
| ''ēducātūrus'' || ''ēducandus''
|}

====French====
There are two basic participles:
*'''Present active participle''': formed by dropping the ''-ons'' of the ''nous'' form of the present tense of a verb (except with ''être'') and then adding ''ant'': ''marchant'' "walking", ''étant'' "being"
*'''Past participle''': formation varies according to verb group: ''vendu'' "sold", ''mis'' "placed", ''marché'' "walked", ''été'' "been", and ''fait'' "done". The sense of the past participle is passive as an adjective and in most verbal constructions with "avoir", but active in verbal constructions with "être", in reflexive constructions, and with some intransitive verbs.<sup>[]</sup>

Compound participles are possible:
*'''Present perfect participle''': ''ayant appelé'' "having called", ''étant mort'' "being dead"
*'''Passive perfect participle''': ''étant vendu'' "being sold, having been sold"

Usage:
*'''Present participles''' are used as qualifiers as in "un insecte '''volant'''" (a flying insect) and in some other contexts. They are never used to form tenses. The present participle is used in subordinate clauses, usually with ''en'': "Je marche, en parlant".
*'''Past participles''' are used as qualifiers for nouns: "la table '''cassée'''" (the broken table); to form compound tenses such as the perfect "Vous avez '''dit'''" (you have said) and to form the passive voice: "il a été '''tué'''" (he/it has been killed).

====Spanish====
In Spanish, the present or active participle (''participio activo'' or ''participio de presente'') of a verb is traditionally formed with one of the suffixes ''-ante, -ente'' or ''-iente'', but modern grammar does not consider it a verbal form any longer, as they become adjectives or nouns on their own: e.g. ''amante'' "loving" or "lover", ''viviente'' "living" or "live".

The continuous is constructed much as in English, using a conjugated form of ''estar'' (''to be'') plus the ''gerundio'' (sometimes called a verbal adverb or adverbial participle as it does not decline) with the suffixes ''-ando'' (for -ar verbs),  ''-iendo'' (for both -er and -ir verbs whose stems end in consonants), or ''-yendo'' (for both -er and -ir verbs whose stems end in vowels): for example, ''estar haciendo'' means ''to be doing'' (''haciendo'' being the ''gerundio'' of ''hacer'', ''to do''), and there are related constructions such as ''seguir haciendo'' meaning ''to keep doing'' (''seguir'' being ''to continue'').

The past participle (''participio pasado'' or ''pasivo'') is regularly formed with one of the suffixes ''-ado'', ''-ido'', but several verbs have an irregular form ending in ''-to'' (e.g. ''escrito, visto''), or ''-cho'' (e.g. ''dicho, hecho''). The past participle is used generally as an adjective meaning a finished action, or to form the passive voice, and it is variable in gender and number in these uses; and also it is used to form the compound tenses (as in English) in which it has only one form, the singular male one. Some examples:

;As an adjective
*''las cartas escritas'' "the written letters"
;In the passive voice, accompanied by the verb "ser" (to be) and "por" (by)
*''Los ladrones fueron capturados por la policia'' "The thieves were caught by the police."
;To form compound tenses
*''Ella ha escrito una carta.'' "She has written a letter."

===Hellenic languages===

====Ancient Greek====
See Also [[Ancient Greek grammar#Participle]]

The [[Ancient Greek]] participle shares in the properties of adjectives and verbs. Like an adjective, it changes form for [[grammatical gender|gender]], [[grammatical case|case]], and [[grammatical number|number]]. Like a verb, it has [[grammatical tense|tense]] and [[voice (grammar)|voice]], is modified by [[adverb]]s, and can take [[verb argument]]s, including an [[object (grammar)|object]].<sup>[]</sup>

There is a form of the participle for every combination of tense (present, aorist, perfect, future) and voice (active, middle, passive).  All participles are based on the stems of the corresponding tenses. Here are the masculine nominative singular forms for a thematic and an athematic verb:
{| class="wikitable polytonic" style="text-align: center;"
! λύω<br>"I release" !! active !! middle !! passive
|-
! present
| λύων || colspan="2" | λυόμενος
|-
! aorist
|λύσας || λυσάμενος || λυθείς
|-
! future
| λύσων || λυσόμενος || λυθησόμενος
|-
! perfect
| λελυκώς || colspan="2" | λελυμένος
|}

{| class="wikitable polytonic" style="text-align: center;"
! τίθημι<br>"I put" !! active !! middle !! passive
|-
! present
| τιθείς || colspan="2" | τιθέμενος
|-
! aorist
|θείς || θέμενος || τεθείς
|-
! future
| θήσων || θησόμενος || τεθησόμενος
|-
! perfect
| τεθηκώς || colspan="2" | τεθειμένος
|}

Like an adjective, it can modify a noun, and can be used to embed one thought into another.

* πολλὰ καὶ φύσει καὶ ἐπιστήμῃ δεῖ '''τὸν εὖ στρατηγήσοντα''' ἔχειν<br>"he '''who intends to be a good general''' must have a great deal of ability and knowledge,"

In the example, the participial phrase τὸν εὖ στρατηγήσοντα, literally "the one going to be a good general," is used to embed the idea εὖ στρατηγήσει "he will be a good general" within the main verb.

The participle is very widely used in ancient Greek, especially in prose.

===Celtic languages===

====Welsh====

In Welsh, the effect of a participle in the active voice is constructed by ''yn'' followed by the infinitive form (for the present participle) and ''wedi'' followed by the infinitive form (for the past participle). There is no [[consonant mutation|mutation]] in either case. In the passive voice, participles are usually replaced by a compound phrase such as ''wedi cael ei/eu'' in contemporary Welsh and by the impersonal form in classical Welsh.

===Slavic languages===

====Polish====
The Polish word for participle is ''imiesłów'' ([[plural|pl.]]: ''imiesłowy''). There are four types of imiesłowy in two classes:

'''Adjectival participle''' (imiesłów przymiotnikowy)
* active adjectival participle (imiesłów przymiotnikowy czynny): robiący - "doing", "one who does"
* passive adjectival participle (imiesłów przymiotnikowy bierny): robiony - "being done" (can only be formed off [[transitive verb]]s)

'''Adverbial participle''' (imiesłów przysłówkowy)
* present adverbial participle (imiesłów przysłówkowy współczesny): robiąc - "doing", "while doing"
* perfect adverbial participle (imiesłów przysłówkowy uprzedni): zrobiwszy - "having done" (formed in virtually all cases off verbs in their [[perfective aspect|perfective forms]], here denoted by the [[prefix]] ''z-'')

'''Dangling participle'''

Due to the distinction between adjectival and adverbial participles, in Polish it is practically impossible to make a dangling participle mistake in the classical English meaning of the term. For instance, in the sentence:

"I have found them hiding in the closet."

it is unclear, whether "I" or "them" is hiding in the closet. In Polish there is a clear distinction:

* "Znalazłem ich, chowając się w szafie." - ''chowając'' is a present adverbial participle regarding the subject ("I")
* "Znalazłem ich chowających się w szafie" - ''chowających'' is an active adjectival participle regarding the object ("them")

However, participles may cause confusion if used in sentences like this one:

* "Mając 8 lat, rodzice posłali mnie do szkoły" - "Being 8 years old my parents sent me to school"

which does not make it clear - in grammatical terms - whether "me" or "my parents" were 8 at the time of "me" being sent to school. The use of the present adverbial participle ''mając'' (corresponding to the participle ''being'' in the English translation) is considered incorrect, and thus a different structure should be used.

====Russian====
Verb: слышать [ˈslɨ.ʂɐtʲ] (to hear, [[imperfective aspect]])

Present active: слышащий [ˈslɨ.ʂɐ.ɕɕɪj] "hearing", "who hears" <br> 
Present passive: слышимый [ˈslɨ.ʂᵻ.məj] "being heard", "that is heard", "audible" <br>
Past active: слышавший [ˈslɨ.ʂɐf.ʂəj] "who heard", "who was hearing" <br>
Past passive: слышанный [ˈslɨ.ʂɐn.nəj] "that was heard", "that was being heard" <br>
[[adverbial participle|Adverbial]] present active: слыша [ˈslɨ.ʂɐ] "(while) hearing" <br>
Adverbial past active: слышав [ˈslɨ.ʂɐf] "having been hearing"

Verb: услышать [ʊˈslɨ.ʂɐtʲ] (to hear, [[perfective aspect]])

Past active: услышавший [ʊˈslɨ.ʂɐf.ʂəj] "who has heard"<br>
Past passive: услышанный [ʊˈslɨ.ʂɐn.nəj] "that has been heard"<br>
Adverbial past active: услышав [ʊˈslɨ.ʂɐf] "having heard"<br>
Future participles formed from perfective verbs are technically possible, though not considered a part of standard language.<sup>[]</sup>

====Bulgarian====
Verb: правя pravja (to do, imperfective aspect)

Present active: правещ pravešt<br>
Past active aorist: правил pravil<br>
Past active imperfect: правел pravel (only used in [[verb]]al constructions)<br>
Past passive: правен praven<br>
Adverbial present active: правейки pravejki

Verb: направя napravja (to do, perfective aspect)<br>
Past active aorist: направил napravil<br>
Past active imperfect: направел napravel (only used in [[verb]]al constructions)<br>
Past passive: направен napraven

Participles are adjectives formed as verbs

==== Macedonian ====
Macedonian completely lost or transformed the participles of the Common Slavic, unlike the other Slavic languages. The following is noted:<sup>[]</sup>
* present active participle: it transformed into verbal adverb;
* present passive participle: there are some isolated cases of present passive participle (or remnants of it), such as the word лаком [lakom] (greedy);
* past active participle: there is only one word (remnant) of the past active participle, which is the word бивш [bivš] (former). However, this word is often substituted with the word поранешен [poranešen] (former);
* past passive participle: transformed into verbal adjective (it behaves like normal adjective);
* resultative participle: transformed into verbal l-form (глаголска л-форма). It is not a participle since it doesn't function attributively.

===Baltic languages===

====Lithuanian====
Among Indo-European languages, the [[Lithuanian language]] is unique for having thirteen different participial forms of the verb, that can be grouped into five when accounting for inflection by tense. Some of these are also inflected by gender and case. For example, the verb ''eiti'' ("to go, to walk") has the active participle forms ''einąs/einantis'' ("going, walking", present tense), ''ėjęs'' (past tense), ''eisiąs'' (future tense), ''eidavęs'' (past frequentative tense), the passive participle forms ''einamas'' ("being walked", present tense), ''eitas'' (“walked“ past tense), ''eisimas'' (future tense), the adverbial participles ''einant'' ("while [he, different subject] is walking" present tense), ''ėjus'' (past tense), ''eisiant'' (future tense), ''eidavus'' (past frequentative tense), the semi-participle ''eidamas'' ("while [he, the same subject] is going, walking") and the participle of necessity ''eitinas'' ("that which needs to be walked"). The active, passive and the semi- participles are inflected by gender and the active, passive and necessity ones are inflected by case.